Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)
2025 Standard Questionnaire
Item Rationale

Obesity, Overweight, and Weight Control

QUESTION(S):

  5.	How tall are you without your shoes on?

  6.	How much do you weigh without your shoes on?

64.	How do you describe your weight?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure self-reported height and weight and perceived body weight. Data on self-reported height and weight are used to calculate body mass index (BMI) and determine the corresponding BMI percentile for adolescents. BMI percentile takes into account that young people are still growing and are growing at different rates depending on their age and sex. There are different ways that BMI data can be presented; CDC recommends using BMI percentile when assessing weight status for youth ages 2–20. Although BMI calculated from self-reported height and weight underestimates the prevalence of obesity compared to BMI calculated from measured height and weight,(1,2) self-reported height and weight are useful for tracking BMI trends over time at a population level.(3-5) 
	
Children with obesity are at higher risk of having other chronic health conditions and diseases that influence physical health.(6,7) Obesity has psychological consequences as well; many youth with obesity experience weight stigma, including being bullied and teased.(8,9) In the long term, youth with obesity are more likely to have obesity as an adult than children or adolescents who did not have obesity.(10)
	
Continued monitoring of height and weight data through the YRBS provides information at the national, state, and local levels that can be used to track progress in efforts to reduce the prevalence of obesity.(3)  Nationwide in 2021, 16% of high school students had obesity and 16% were overweight.(11) During 1999–2021, significant linear increases occurred in the percentage of students with obesity (11%–16%) and who were overweight (14%–16%). 

REFERENCES: 

1.	Mei Z, Grummer-Strawn LM, Pietrobelli A, Goulding A, Goran MI, Dietz WH. Validity of body mass index compared with other body-composition screening indexes for assessment of body fatness in children and adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;75(6):978–985.

2.	Jayawardene W, Lohrmann D, YoussefAgha A. Discrepant body mass index: behaviors associated with height and weight misreporting among US adolescents from the National Youth Physical Activity and Nutrition Study. Childhood Obesity 2014;10(3). 

3.	 Hoelscher DM, Ranjit N, Pérez A. Surveillance systems to track and evaluate obesity prevention efforts. Annual Review of Public Health 2017;38:187-214.

4.	Institute of Medicine. Evaluating Obesity Prevention Efforts: A Plan for Measuring Progress. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2013.

5.	Brener ND, McManus T, Galuska DA, Lowry R, Wechsler H. Reliability and validity of self-reported height and weight among high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health 2003;32:281–287.

6.	Umer A, Kelley GA, Cottrell LE, Giacobbi P, Innes KE, Lilly CL. Childhood obesity and adult cardiovascular disease risk factors: a systematic review with meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2017

7.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.). About Obesity. Retrieved July 2, 2024, from https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/php/about/. 

8.	Pont FJ, Puhl R, Cook SR, Slusser W, Section on Obesity, The Obesity Society. Stigma experienced by children and adolescents with obesity. Pediatrics 2017;140(6):e20173034.

9.	Van Geel M, Vedder P, Tanilon J. Are overweight and obese youths more often bullied by their peers? A meta-analysis on the correlation between weight status and bullying. International Journal of Obesity 2014;38(10):1263–1267.

10.	Simmonds M, Llewellyn A, Owen CG, Woolacott N. Predicting adult obesity from childhood obesity: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Obesity Reviews 2016;17(2): 95-107.

11.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.  

QUESTION(S):

65.	Which of the following are you trying to do about your weight?

RATIONALE:

This question measures weight goals. The prevention of childhood obesity involves maintaining a healthy weight while protecting overall health, growth and development, and nutritional status.(1) The goals of obesity prevention in children and adolescents also include the avoidance of potentially harmful weight concerns and restrictive eating behaviors.(2)  For these reasons, understanding adolescents’ weight goals, both independently and relative to weight status, is of public health importance. Nationwide in 2021, 46% of high school students were trying to lose weight. During 1999–2021, significant linear decreases occurred in the percentage of students who were trying to lose weight (42%–46%).(3)

REFERENCES:

1.	Institute of Medicine. Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2012. Available at: https://www.nap.edu/read/13275/chapter/1. 

2.	Golden NH, Schneider M, Wood C, Committee on Nutrition, Committee on Adolescence, Section on Obesity.  Preventing obesity and eating disorders in adolescents. Pediatrics 2016;138(3):e20161649. 

3.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/. 

Behaviors that Result in Unintentional Injuries

QUESTION(S):

7.	How often do you wear a seat belt when riding in a car driven by someone else?

RATIONALE:

This question measures the frequency with which seat belts are worn when riding in a car driven by someone else. Motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death among adolescents aged 13–19 years in the United States, with more than 2,800 adolescents killed in 2022.(1) In addition,  approximately 254,000 adolescents aged 13–19 years were treated in emergency departments for motor vehicle crash-related injuries in 2021.(1) When used correctly, seat belts reduce the risk of death and serious injury in crashes for passenger car occupants by about half.(2,3) In 2021, approximately 40% of high school students nationwide did not always wear a seat belt when riding in a car driven by someone else.(4) Additionally, there is evidence of disparities in the prevalence of adolescent seat belt use by geographic location that are important to monitor. For example, a CDC study using national YRBS data found that students in the Northeast were 40% more likely than students in the Midwest to not always wear a seat belt.(5)

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. WISQARS (Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/index.html.

2.	Kahane CJ. Lives Saved by Vehicle Safety Technologies and Associated Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, 1960 to 2012 – Passenger Cars and LTVs – With Reviews of 26 FMVSS and the Effectiveness of Their Associated Safety Technologies in Reducing Fatalities, Injuries, and Crashes (Report No. DOT HS 812 069). U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; January 2015. Available at: https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/812069. 

3.	Kahane CJ. Fatality Reduction by Seat Belts in the Center Rear Seat and Comparison of Occupants’ Relative Fatality Risk at Various Seating Positions (Report No. DOT HS 812 369). U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); February 2017. Available at: https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/812369. 

4.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

5.	Shults RA, Shaw KM, Yellman MA, Jones SE. Does geographic location matter for transportation risk behaviors among U.S. public high school students? Journal of Transport and Health 2021;22:101134.

QUESTION(S):

8.	During the past 30 days, how many times did you ride in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had been drinking alcohol?

9.	During the past 30 days, how many times did you drive a car or other vehicle when you had been drinking alcohol?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure the frequency with which high school students drive a motor vehicle after drinking alcohol or ride as a passenger in a motor vehicle operated by someone who has been drinking alcohol. In 2021, 21% of 15- to 20-year-old drivers who were involved in fatal motor vehicle crashes had been drinking alcohol.(1) Among those young drivers who were killed in fatal motor vehicle crashes and had been drinking alcohol, 84% had a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) equal to or above the legal threshold for adults (which is 0.08% in all states but Utah).(1) Approximately one-fourth of the young drivers who were killed in motor vehicle crashes had BACs at or above 0.08%.(1) Even at BACs of 0.050%–0.079%, drivers 16–20 years of age are about 6 times as likely to be involved in a fatal crash as their sober counterparts.(2) In 2021, among U.S. high school students who had driven a car or other vehicle during the 30 days before the survey, 4.6% drove one or more times when they had been drinking alcohol during that same time period.(3) The prevalence of driving when the student had been drinking alcohol decreased during 2013–2021 (10.0%–4.6%).(3) 

Riding with a driver of any age who has been drinking alcohol is dangerous. Riding with a drinking driver is also associated with adolescent drinking and driving.(4,5) In addition, longitudinal research indicates that adolescents who ride with impaired drivers at a young age are more likely to drive while impaired themselves as they get older and start driving.(6) In 2021 among U.S. high school students, 14% had ridden in a car or other vehicle driven by someone who had been drinking alcohol at least once during the 30 days before the survey.(3) The prevalence of riding with a driver who had been drinking alcohol decreased during 1991–2009 (39.9%‒28.3%) and then further decreased from 2009‒2021 (28.3%–14.1%).(3)
	
REFERENCES:

1.	National Center for Statistics and Analysis. Young drivers: 2021 data (Traffic Safety Facts. Report No. DOT HS 813 492). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); August 2023. Available at: https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/813492. 

2.	Voas RB, Torres P, Romano E, Lacey JH. Alcohol-related risk of driver fatalities: an update using 2007 data. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 2012;73(3):341–350. 

3.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

4.	Yellman MA, Bryan L, Sauber-Schatz EK, Brener N. Transportation risk behaviors among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl. 2020;69(1):77–83. 

5.	Leadbeater BJ, Foran K, Grove-White A. How much can you drink before driving? The influence of riding with impaired adults and peers on the driving behaviors of urban and rural youth. Addiction 2008;103(4):629–637. 

6.	Li K, Simons-Morton BG, Vaca FE, Hingson R. Association between riding with an impaired driver and driving while impaired. Pediatrics 2014;133:620–626.

QUESTION(S):

10.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you text or e-mail while driving a car or other vehicle?

RATIONALE:

This question measures the frequency with which students engage in texting or e-mailing while driving a motor vehicle. Motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death among U.S. adolescents aged 13–19 years in the United States.(1,2) In 2022, 6% of all drivers aged 15–20 years involved in fatal crashes were reported as distracted at the time of the crash, and 14% of these distracted teens were distracted by the use of cell phones.(3) The performance of distracting secondary tasks while driving, such as texting while driving, significantly increases risk for a crash or near-crash among novice, inexperienced drivers.(2,4,5) Texting while driving is an especially risky type of distracted driving, as it involves three types of driver distraction: visual, physical/manual, and cognitive.(6) Teen drivers are more vulnerable to the effects of distraction(2,7,8,9) and are less able to disengage from distracting behaviors as road hazards emerge than adults.(10) In 2021, among high school students nationwide who had driven a car or other vehicle during the 30 days before the survey, the prevalence of texting while driving one or more times during the same time period was 36.1%.(11) The prevalence of texting or emailing while driving decreased during 2013–2021 (41.4%–36.1%).(11) In addition, there are disparities in the prevalence of texting/e-mailing while driving among adolescent drivers by geographic location that need to be monitored. For example, a CDC study using national YRBS data found that high school students (aged ≥16 years) in the Northeast who drove were 20% less likely than students in the Midwest to text/e-mail while driving.(12) Also, students (aged ≥16 years) attending suburban or town schools who drove were 20%–30% more likely to text/e-mail while driving than students attending urban schools.(12)

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. WISQARS (Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/index.html.

2.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Risk Factors for Teen Drivers. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; April 2024. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/teen-drivers/risk-factors/.   

3.	National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Traffic Safety Facts Research Note: Distracted Driving in 2022 (Report No. DOT HS 813 559). U.S. Department of Transportation; April 2024. Available at: https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/813559.

4.	Klauer SG, Guo F, Simons-Morton BG, Ouimet MC, Lee S, Dingus TA. Distracted driving and risk of road crashes among novice and experienced drivers. New England Journal of Medicine 2014;370(1):54–59.
 
5.	Simons-Morton BG, Klauer SG, Ouimet MC, Guo F, Albert PS, Lee SE, Ehsani JP, Pradhan AK, Dingus TA. Naturalistic teenage driving study: findings and lessons learned. Journal of Safety Research 2015;54:41–48.

6.	Caird JK, Johnston KA, Willness CR, Asbridge M, Steel P. A meta-analysis of the effects of texting on driving. Accident Analysis and Prevention 2014;71:311–318.

7.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Distracted Driving Risk Factors. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; April 2024. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/distracted-driving/risk-factors/index.html. 

8.	Alderman EM, Johnston BD; Committee on Adolescence; Council on Injury, Violence, and Poison Prevention. American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement – The Teen Driver. Pediatrics 2018;142(4):e20182163. 

9.	Llerena LE, Aronow KV, Macleod J, Bard M, Salzman S, Greene W, Haider A, Schupper A. An evidence-based review: distracted driver. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 2015;78(1):147–152. 

10.	Lee SE, Klauer SG, Olsen ECB, Simons-Morton BG, Dingus TA, Ramsey DJ, Ouimet MC. Detection of road hazards by novice teen and experienced adult drivers. Transportation Research Record 2008;2078(1):26–32.

11.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

12.	Shults RA, Shaw KM, Yellman MA, Jones SE. Does geographic location matter for transportation risk behaviors among U.S. public high school students? Journal of Transport and Health 2021;22:101134. 

Violence-Related Behaviors

QUESTION(S):
	
11.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you carry a weapon such as a gun, knife, or club on school property?

12.	During the past 12 months, on how many days did you carry a gun? (Do not count the days when you carried a gun only for hunting or for a sport, such as target shooting.)

13.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you not go to school because you felt you would be unsafe at school or on your way to or from school?

14.	During the past 12 months, how many times has someone threatened or injured you with a weapon such as a gun, knife, or club on school property?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure violence-related behaviors and school-related violent behaviors. Violence is a significant public health issue among youth, with homicide being the second leading cause of death among youth ages 13 –19 years (10.0 per 100,000) in 2022.(1) Homicide is the leading cause of death among non-Hispanic black youth ages 13–19 years (45.7 per 100,000) and the second leading cause of death for Hispanic youth ages 13–19 years (8.8 per 100,000).(1) Approximately 12% of homicide victims in the United States in 2022 were aged 13–19 years; of these victims, 94% were killed with a firearm.(1) More than 62% of all single-victim and 95% of all multiple-victim school-associated youth homicides involve firearms.(2) Nearly 100% of school districts have a policy prohibiting weapon possession or use by high school students on school property.(3) Also, in 2021, more than 145,000 (477.5 per 100,000) nonfatal, physical assault injuries among youth ages 13–19 years were treated in U.S. emergency departments.(1)   
	
Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 3.1% had carried a weapon (i.e., gun, knife, or club) on school property on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey.(4)  The prevalence of having carried a weapon on school property decreased significantly from 11.8% in 1993 to 3.1% in 2021.(4) For the first time in 2017, the question assessing the prevalence of having carried a gun during the 12 months before the survey instructed respondents not to count the days when they carried a gun only for hunting or for a sport, such as target shooting. In 2021, 3.5% of high school students carried a gun (excluding the days when they carried a gun only for hunting or for a sport, such as target shooting) during the 12 months before the survey. This represents a significant decrease from 4.8% in 2017 to 3.5% in 2021.(4)
	
Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 8.6% had not gone to school on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey because they felt they would be unsafe at school or on their way to or from school and 6.6% had been threatened or injured with a weapon on school property one or more times during the 12 months before the survey.(4)  The prevalence of students nationwide having not gone to school because of safety concerns increased significantly from 4.4% in 1993 to 8.6% in 2021. (4)  The prevalence of students nationwide having been threatened or injured with a weapon on school property did not change significantly during 1993–2003 (7.3%–9.2%), but then decreased from 9.2% in 2003 to 6.6% in 2021.(4)  

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) 2024 June 7. Available at: www.wisqars.cdc.gov. 

2.	Holland KM, Hall JE, Wang J, et al. Characteristics of school-associated youth homicides — United States, 1994–2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019;68:53–60. 

3.	Miller G, Wilson L, Rice KL, DePadilla L, Mercado MC, Everett Jones S. Injury prevention activities in US schools, School Health Policies and Practices Survey 2014. Journal of School Health 2022. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13190.

4.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

QUESTION(S):

15.	During the past 12 months, how many times were you in a physical fight?

16.	During the past 12 months, how many times were you in a physical fight on school property?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure the frequency of physical fights in general and on school property during the 12 months before the survey. Physical fighting is associated with increased likelihood of serious injury-related health outcomes, including being hospitalized for fighting-related injuries, other forms of violence (e.g., bullying), and health risk behaviors (e.g., substance use). (1,2,3) Physical fighting is also a marker for problem behaviors and outcomes related to education, including school absenteeism and suspension,(4-9) and has implications for adolescent mental health.(10) Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 18.3% had been in a physical fight and 5.8% had been in a physical fight on school property one or more times during the 12 months before the survey.(11) The percentage of high school students who were in a physical fight decreased during 1991–2011 (42.5%–32.8%) and then decreased further during 2011–2021 (32.8%-18.3%).(11) The percentage of high school students who were in a physical fight on school property also decreased significantly during 1993–2021 (16.2%–5.8%).(11)

REFERENCES:

1.	Sosin DM, Koepsell TD, Rivara FP, Mercy JA. Fighting as a marker for multiple problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 1995;16:209–215.

2.	Borowsky IW, Ireland M. Predictors of future fight-related injury among adolescents. Pediatrics 2004;113:530–536.

3.	Espelage DL, Low S, Rao MA, Hong JS, Little TD. Family violence, bullying, fighting, and substance use among adolescents: A longitudinal mediational model. Journal of Research on Adolescence 2014;24(2):337-349.

4.	Pickett W, Craig W, Harel Y, Cunningham J, Simpson K, Molcho M, et al. Cross-national study of fighting and weapon carrying as determinants of adolescent injury. Pediatrics 2005;116:855–863.

5.	Furlong M, Casas JM, Corral C, Chung A, Bates M. Drugs and school violence. Education and Treatment of Children 1997;20(3):263-280.

6.	Rudatsikira E, Muula AS, Siziya S. Variables associated with physical fighting among US high-school students. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2008;4(1):1-8.

7.	Basch CE. Aggression and violence and the achievement gap among urban minority youth. Journal of School Health 2011;81(10):619–625.

8.	Ramirez M, Wu Y, Kataoka S, Wong M, Yang J, Peek-Asa C, Stein B. Youth violence across multiple dimensions: a study of violence, absenteeism, and suspensions among middle school children. The Journal of Pediatrics 2012;161(3):542-546.

9.	DuRant RH, Krowchuk DP, Kreiter S, Sinal SH, Woods CR. Weapon carrying on school property among middle school students. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 1999;153(1):21-6.

10.	Labuhn M, LaBore K, Ahmed T, Ahmed R. Trends and instigators among young adolescent suicide in the United States. Public Health 2021;199:51-56.

11.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/. 

QUESTION(S):

17.	Have you ever seen someone get physically attacked, beaten, stabbed, or shot in your neighborhood?

RATIONALE:

This question measures exposure to community violence. Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 20% had ever seen someone get physically attacked, beaten, stabbed, or shot in their neighborhood.(1)  Data from the 2014 National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence found that 33% of adolescents ages 14-17 reported witnessing an assault in their community (58% in their lifetime) and 5% reported being exposed to a shooting (including hearing gunshots or seeing someone shot) in the past year (13% in their lifetime).(2) In addition, data from a 2009 survey of New York State adult residents found that 25% of adults sampled indicated they were exposed to violence in their community before age 18.(3) Witnessing community violence is associated with suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, binge drinking, substance use, and gun carrying among high school students.(1) The World Health Organization considers exposure to community violence to be an adverse childhood experience that can have lifelong consequences.(4-7) Measuring exposure to community violence is important because adverse childhood experiences are a focus area of CDC, and this measure seeks to capture the community context for violence.

REFERENCES:

1.	Harper CR, Li J, Sheats K, Hertz M, Merrill-Francis M, Friar NW, et al. Witnessing community violence, gun carrying, and associations with substance use and suicide risk among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(1):22-28. 

2.	Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Shattuck A, Hamby SL. Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: results from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatrics 2015;169(8):746-754.

3.	Lee E, Larkin H, Saki N. Exposure to community violence as a new adverse childhood experience category: promising results and future considerations. Families in Society 2017;98(1):69-78.

4.	World Health Organization (WHO). Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire. In Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ): Geneva: WHO, 2018. Available at https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/activities/adverse_childhood_experiences/en/.

5.	Merrick MT, Ford DC, Ports KA, Guinn AS, Chen J, Klevens J, et al. Vital Signs: estimated proportion of adult health problems attributable to adverse childhood experiences and implications for prevention −25 states, 2015-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019;68(44):999–1005.

6.	Bellis MA, Hughes K, Ford K, Rodriguez GRR, Sethi D, Passmore J. Life course health consequences and associated annual costs of adverse childhood experiences across Europe and North America: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health 2019;4(10):e517–e528

7.	Peterson C, Aslam MV, Niolon PH, et al. Economic burden of health conditions associated with adverse childhood experiences among US adults. JAMA Network Open 2023;6(12):e2346323.  

QUESTION(S):

18.	Have you ever been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when you did not want to?

19.	During the past 12 months, how many times did anyone force you to do sexual things that you did not want to do? (Count such things as kissing, touching, or being physically forced to have sexual intercourse.)

20.	During the past 12 months, how many times did someone you were dating or going out with force you to do sexual things that you did not want to do? (Count such things as kissing, touching, or being physically forced to have sexual intercourse.)

21.	During the past 12 months, how many times did someone you were dating or going out with physically hurt you on purpose? (Count such things as being hit, slammed into something, or injured with an object or weapon.)

RATIONALE:

These questions measure the frequency of sexual violence and dating violence experienced by students. Sexual and dating violence victimization are associated with a range of negative consequences including suicide ideation and attempts, major depressive episodes, increased alcohol, tobacco, and other substance use, eating disorders, and risky sexual behavior.(1-6) According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, 1 in 4 U.S. women have experienced (completed or attempted) rape and 1 in 9 U.S. men have been made to sexually penetrate someone else (completed or attempted) in their lifetime; among female victims of rape, 49.0% were under 18 years old at the time of their first victimization, and among male victims of being made to penetrate, 41.1% were under 18 at the time of the first victimization.(7) About 1 in 3 women (32.5%) and 1 in 4 men (24.6%) have experienced severe physical violence by an intimate partner (e.g., hit with a fist or something hard, beaten, slammed against something) at some point in their lifetime.(8) Among adults who ever experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner, 25.9% of women and 20.5% of men first experienced some form of violence by that partner between 11 and 17 years of age.(8)
	
All three sexual violence questions are important for understanding the public health burden of sexual violence against young people, guiding prevention strategies, and monitoring changes over time. These data are particularly useful for monitoring changes in trends and the effects of prevention efforts such as CDC’s Rape Prevention Education Program.(9) Data on forced sexual activity by any perpetrator — not just a dating partner — provides a better understanding of the burden of sexual violence among high school students because studies have shown that perpetrators can include current or former friends, acquaintances, family members, and other adults.(7,10,11) Preventing sexual violence by any perpetrator and dating violence are focus areas for CDC because they are types of adverse childhood experiences. Knowing the proportion of high school students who are sexually and physically victimized by a dating partner is also crucial because it provides a more complete measure of teen dating violence and prevention strategies often focus specifically on violence in dating relationships. These estimates are critically important for monitoring progress in this area.

In 2021, 8.5% of high school students nationwide had ever been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when they did not want to.(12) The percentage of high school students who had ever been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when they did not want to changed significantly during 2001–2021 (7.7%–8.5%).(12)  Among the students who dated or went out with someone during the 12 months before the survey, 8.5% experienced physical dating violence by a dating partner, and 9.7% experienced sexual dating violence by a dating partner.(12) The percentage of high school students who experienced physical dating violence and sexual dating violence both decreased significantly during 2013–2021 (10.3%–8.5% and 10.4%–9.7%).(12) Nationwide, 11.0% of students experienced sexual violence by anyone one or more times during the 12 months before the survey.(12) The percentage of students who experienced sexual violence by anyone increased significantly during 2017-2021 (9.7%-11.0%).(12)

Data from the YRBS has also been critical in understanding which youth are at highest risk of experiencing sexual violence and dating violence. For example, AI/AN students reported higher prevalence of sexual violence and dating violence compared to students of other race/ethnicities.(13)  Students who identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual were at significantly higher risk of experiencing sexual violence and dating violence compared to heterosexual students.(13) Transgender youth also reported significantly higher levels of sexual violence and dating violence victimization compared to cisgender counterparts.(14)  

REFERENCES:

1.	Basile KC, Clayton HB, Leemis RW, Rostad W. Sexual violence victimization of youth and health risk behaviors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2020;58(4):570-579. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.11.020.

2.	Campo-Tena L, Larmour SR, Pereda N, Eisner MP. Longitudinal associations between adolescent dating violence victimization and adverse outcomes: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 2024;25(2):1265-1277. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231174504 

3.	Baiden P, Mengo C, Small E. History of physical teen dating violence and its association with suicidal behaviors among adolescent high school students: results from the 2015 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2021;36(17-18), NP9526-NP9547. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519860087. 

4.	Mintz S, Ingram K, M, Milliken, A Kuehl T, Espelage DL. Longitudinal associations between sexual victimization and substance misuse among high school youth in Colorado. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2022;37(7-8):NP4415-NP4438. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520959628.  

5.	Spencer CM, Anders KM, Toews ML, Emanuels SK. Risk markers for physical teen dating violence victimization in the United States: A meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 2020;49:575-589. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01194-1.  

6.	Taylor KA, Sullivan TN. Bidirectional relations between dating violence victimization and substance use in a diverse sample of early adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2021;36(1-2):862-891. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517731312.

7.	Basile KC, Smith SG, Kresnow M, Khatiwada S, Leemis RW. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2016/2017 Report on Sexual Violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2022.

8.	Leemis RW, Friar N, Khatiwada S, Chen MS, Kresnow M, Smith SG, Caslin S, Basile KC. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2016/2017 Report on Intimate Partner Violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2022.

9.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention. Rape prevention and education: Transforming communities to prevent sexual violence. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/programs/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/rpe/index.html.  

10.	Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Ruggiero KJ, Conoscenti LM, McCauley J. Drug-facilitated, incapacitated, and forcible rape: A national study. Charleston, SC: Medical University of South Carolina, National Crime Victims Research & Treatment Center; 2007. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/219181.pdf. 

11.	Gewirtz-Meydan A, Finkelhor D. Sexual abuse and assault in a large national sample of children and adolescents. Child Maltreatment 2020;25(2):203-214. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/107755951987397.   

12.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

13.	Clayton HB, Kilmer G, DeGue S, Estefan LF, Le VD, Suarez NA, et al. Dating violence, sexual violence, and bullying victimization among High School students —Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(1):66-74. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7201a8. 

14.	Suarez NA, McKinnon II, Krause KH, Rasberry CN, Pampati S, Underwood JM. Disparities in behaviors and experiences among transgender and cisgender high school students—18 US states, 2021. Annals of Epidemiology 2024;94:113-119. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2024.05.004.  

QUESTION(S):

23.	During the past 12 months, have you ever been bullied on school property?

24.  	During the past 12 months, have you ever been electronically bullied? (Count being bullied through texting, Instagram, Facebook, or other social media.)

RATIONALE:

Bullying is a form of youth violence and an adverse childhood experience (ACE). Bullying is “any unwanted aggressive behavior(s) by another youth or group of youths, who are not siblings or current dating partners, that involves an observed or perceived power imbalance, and is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to be repeated. Bullying may inflict harm or distress on the targeted youth including physical, psychological, social, or educational harm.” (1) These questions assess experiencing bullying victimization on school property or anywhere via electronic mechanisms during the past 12 months. Bullying victimization is associated with depression,(1-4) anxiety,(4) suicidal ideation,(1,4-6) self-injury,(2,4) suicide attempts,(2,4-6) increased odds of repeated common health problems,(5,7) school absenteeism,(8) academic difficulties,(9) psychological distress,(5,7) externalizing problems,(10) sleep disturbances,(5) tobacco and illicit drug use,(4) and feeling unsafe at school.(6,8) Electronic bullying victimization – commonly referred to as cyberbullying – has been associated with discipline problems in school, skipping school, weapon carrying,(11) psychological distress,(8,12) lower self-esteem,(13) depression,(12,14)  suicidal ideation,(6,15) self-injury,(12,15) and suicide attempts.(2,6,15)  Among high school students nationwide in 2019, 19.5% reported that they had been bullied on school property during the 12 months before the survey and 15.7% had been electronically bullied through texting, Instagram, Facebook, or other social media during the 12 months before the survey.(15) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Gladden RM, Vivolo-Kantor AM, Hamburger ME, Lumpkin CD. Bullying surveillance among youths: uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0. Atlanta, GA; National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education; 2014.

2.	Kessel Schneider S, O’Donnell L, Stueve A, Coulter RWS. Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of high school students. American Journal of Public Health 2012;102:171-177.

3.	Hawker DS, Boulton MJ. Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2000;41(4):441-455.

4.	Moore SE, Norman RE, Suetani S, Thomas HJ, Sly PD, Scott JG. Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry 2017;7(1):60. 

5.	van Geel M, Vedder P, Tanilon J. Relationship between peer victimization, cyberbullying, and suicide in children and adolescents. JAMA Pediatrics 2014;168(5):435–442.

6.	Rigby K. Consequences of bullying in school. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2003;48(9):583–590.

7.	Schoeler T, Duncan L, Cecil CM, Ploubidis GB, Pingault JB. Quasi-experimental evidence on short-and long-term consequences of bullying victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 2018;144(12):1229

8.	McDougall P, Vaillancourt T. Long-term adult outcomes of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence: pathways to adjustment and maladjustment. American Psychologist 2015;70(4):300-310.

9.	Glew GM, Fan MY, Katon W, Rivara FR, Kernic MA. Bullying, psychosocial adjustment, and academic performance in elementary school. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2005;159:1026-1031.

10.	Ybarra ML, Diener-West M, Leaf PJ. Examining the overlap in internet harassment and school bullying: Implications for school intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health 2007;41:42-50.

11.	Kiriakidis SP, Kavoura A. Cyberbullying: A review of the literature on harassment through the internet and other electronic means. Family & Community Health 2010;33(2):82-93.

12.	Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Cyberbullying and self-esteem. Journal of School Health 2010;80:614-621.

13.	Hu Y, Bai Y, Pan Y, Li S. Cyberbullying victimization and depression among adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research 2021;305:114198. 

14.	John A, Glendenning AC, Marchant A, Montgomery P, Stewart A, Wood S, Lloyd K, Hawton K. Self-harm, suicidal behaviours, and cyberbullying in children and young people: Systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2018;20(4):e9044. 

15.	Basile KC, Clayton HB, DeGue S, Gilford JW, Vagi KJ, Suarez NA, Zwald ML, Lowry R. Interpersonal violence victimization among high school students—Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl 2020;69(1):28-37.

QUESTION(S):

22.	During your life, how often have you felt that you were treated badly or unfairly in school because of your race or ethnicity?

RATIONALE:

Being treated badly or unfairly in school because of one’s race or ethnicity is a self-reported measure of experiencing racial discrimination at school. This experience can also be referred to as perceived racism. The item was adapted from the Perceptions of Racism in Children and Youth (PRaCY) scale, which has shown validity and reliability among youth of color who were ethnically and racially diverse.(1) Racism, defined as “a system of structuring opportunity and assigning value based on the social interpretation of how one looks (i.e., race) that unfairly disadvantages some individuals and communities, unfairly advantages other individuals and communities, and saps the strength of the whole society through the waste of human resources,”(2) is a critical social determinant of health and a key driver of systemic inequities in health outcomes.(2,3) Racism influences the health and well-being of racial and ethnic minority persons and families throughout the lifespan and contributes to racial and ethnic disparities in health outcomes.(3,4) Experiences of racial discrimination are associated with poor mental health (e.g., anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem), health risk behaviors, reduced social and adaptive functioning, and delinquent behaviors among youths.(5,6) Racial discrimination in educational settings contributes to racial disparities in academic achievement and educational attainment, which are important markers for long-term health outcomes.(6) The 2021 Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey (ABES) used this measure and found that approximately one third (35.6%) of U.S. high school students reported perceived racism. Perceived racism was highest among Asian (63.9%), Black (55.2%), and multiracial students (54.5%). Students who reported perceived racism had higher prevalence of poor mental health (38.1%); difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions (44.1%); and not feeling close to people at school (40.7%). Perceived racism was higher among those students who reported poor mental health than those who did not report poor mental health during the pandemic among Asian (67.9% versus 40.5%), Black (62.1% versus 38.5%), Hispanic (45.7% and 22.9%), and White students (24.5% versus 12.7%).(7) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Pachter LM, Szalacha LA, Bernstein BA, Coll CG. Perceptions of Racism in Children and Youth (PRaCY): Properties of a self-report instrument for research on children's health and development. Ethnicity & Health 2010;15(1):33-46. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13557850903383196. 

2.	Jones CP. Confronting institutionalized racism. Phylon 2002;50:7-22. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/4149999.

3.	Trent M, Dooley DG, Dougé J, Section on Adolescent Health; Council on Community Pediatrics; Committee on Adolescence. The impact of racism on child and adolescent health. Pediatrics 2019;144:e20191765. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1765.

4.	Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health 2019;40:105-125. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750. 

5.	Priest N, Paradies Y, Trenerry B, Truong M, Karlsen S, Kelly Y. A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine 2013;95:115-127. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031. 

6.	Tobler AL, Maldonado-Molina MM, Staras SA, O’Mara RJ, Livingston MD, Komro KA. Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, problem behaviors, and mental health among minority urban youth. Ethnic Health 2013;18:337-349. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2012.730609 PMID:23043428.

7.	Mpofu JJ, Cooper AC, Ashley C, Geda S, Harding RL, Johns MM, et al. Perceived racism and demographic, mental health, and behavioral characteristics among high school students during the COVID-19 pandemic—Adolescent Behaviors and Experiences Survey, United States, January–June 2021. MMWR Suppl 2022;71(3):22-27. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7103a4.

QUESTION(S):

23.	During the past 12 months, have you ever been bullied on school property?

24.  	During the past 12 months, have you ever been electronically bullied? (Count being bullied through texting, Instagram, Facebook, or other social media.)

RATIONALE:

Bullying is a form of youth violence and an adverse childhood experience (ACE). Bullying is “any unwanted aggressive behavior(s) by another youth or group of youths, who are not siblings or current dating partners, that involves an observed or perceived power imbalance, and is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to be repeated. Bullying may inflict harm or distress on the targeted youth including physical, psychological, social, or educational harm.”(1) These questions assess experiencing bullying victimization on school property or anywhere via electronic mechanisms during the past 12 months. Bullying victimization is associated with depression,(1-4) anxiety,(4) suicidal ideation,(1,4-6)  self-injury,(2,4)  suicide attempts,(2,4-6) increased odds of repeated common health problems,(5,7) school absenteeism,(8) academic difficulties,(9) psychological distress,(5,7) externalizing problems,(10) sleep disturbances,(5) tobacco and illicit drug use,(4) and feeling unsafe at school.(6,8) Electronic bullying victimization – commonly referred to as cyberbullying – has been associated with discipline problems in school, skipping school, weapon carrying,(11) psychological distress,(8,12) lower self-esteem,(13) depression,(12,14)  suicidal ideation,(6,15)  self-injury,(12,15) and suicide attempts.(2,6,15)  Among high school students nationwide in 2019, 19.5% reported that they had been bullied on school property during the 12 months before the survey and 15.7% had been electronically bullied through texting, Instagram, Facebook, or other social media during the 12 months before the survey.(15) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Gladden RM, Vivolo-Kantor AM, Hamburger ME, Lumpkin CD. Bullying surveillance among youths: uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0. Atlanta, GA; National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education; 2014.

2.	Hawker DS, Boulton MJ. Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: a meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2000;41(4):441–455.

3.	Moore SE, Norman RE, Suetani S, Thomas HJ, Sly PD, Scott JG. Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry 2017;7(1):60. 

4.	van Geel M, Vedder P, Tanilon J. Relationship between peer victimization, cyberbullying, and suicide in children and adolescents. JAMA Pediatrics 2014;168(5):435–442.

5.	Rigby K. Consequences of bullying in school. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2003;48(9):583–590.

6.	Schoeler T, Duncan L, Cecil CM, Ploubidis GB, Pingault JB. Quasi-experimental evidence on short-and long-term consequences of bullying victimization: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 2018;144(12):1229

7.	McDougall P, Vaillancourt T. Long-term adult outcomes of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence: pathways to adjustment and maladjustment. American Psychologist 2015;70(4):300–310.

8.	Glew GM, Fan MY, Katon W, Rivara FR, Kernic MA. Bullying, psychosocial adjustment, and academic performance in elementary school. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2005;159:1026–1031.

9.	Ybarra ML, Diener-West M, Leaf PJ. Examining the overlap in internet harassment and school bullying: Implications for school intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health 2007;41:42–50.

10.	Kiriakidis SP, Kavoura A. Cyberbullying: a review of the literature on harassment through the internet and other electronic means. Family & Community Health 2010;33(2):82–93.

11.	Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Cyberbullying and self-esteem. Journal of School Health 2010;80:614–621.

12.	Hu Y, Bai Y, Pan Y, Li S. Cyberbullying victimization and depression among adolescents: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research 2021;305:114198. 

13.	John A, Glendenning AC, Marchant A, Montgomery P, Stewart A, Wood S, Lloyd K, Hawton K. Self-harm, suicidal behaviours, and cyberbullying in children and young people: systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2018;20(4):e9044. 

14.	Basile KC, Clayton HB, DeGue S, Gilford JW, Vagi KJ, Suarez NA, Zwald ML, Lowry R. Interpersonal violence victimization among high school students—Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl 2020;69(1):28–37.

Self Harm

QUESTION(S):

25.	During the past 12 months, how many times did you do something to purposely hurt yourself without wanting to die, such as cutting or burning yourself on purpose?

RATIONALE:

This question assesses the risk behavior of purposely hurting oneself without wanting to die. This type of self-harm behavior, also referred to as non-suicidal self-injury, tends to begin during adolescence.(1,2) While the behavior is most frequently used as a means of coping with emotions,(1,2) self-harm is also used to communicate distress to others.(2) This type of behavior occurs in the context of multiple mental health disorders, including depression, eating disorders, and substance use disorders.(3) In addition, self-harm has been shown to be an important risk factor for suicide.(4) Regardless of its association with other negative outcomes, the behavior itself is important to monitor.(5) It is indicative of the mental health challenges and experiences of emotional distress among young people, which remains a national concern.(6) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Self-Harm. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/mental-health/self-harm

2.	Taylor PJ, Jomar K, Dhingra K, Forrester R, Shahmalak U, Dickson JM. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of different functions of non-suicidal self-injury. J Affect Disord 2018;227:759-769.

3.	Gratz KL, Dixon-Gordon KL, Chapman AL, Tull MT. Diagnosis and characterization of DSM-5 nonsuicidal self-injury disorder using the clinician-administered Nonsuicidal Self-injury Disorder Index. Assessment 2015;22(5):527-539.

4.	Klonsky ED, May AM, Glenn CR. The relationship between nonsuicidal self-injury and attempted suicide: converging evidence from four samples. J Abnorm Psychol 2013;122(1):231-237.

5.	Lyerla R, Stroup DF. Toward a public health surveillance system for behavioral health. Public Health Rep. 2018;133(4):360-365. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354918772547. 

6.	Office of the Surgeon General. Protecting youth mental health: the US surgeon general’s advisory. Available at: https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf.

Suicide

QUESTION(S):

27.	During the past 12 months, did you ever seriously consider attempting suicide?

28.	During the past 12 months, did you make a plan about how you would attempt suicide?

29.	During the past 12 months, how many times did you actually attempt suicide?

30.	If you attempted suicide during the past 12 months, did any attempt result in an injury, poisoning, or overdose that had to be treated by a doctor or nurse?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Suicide is a serious public health problem that can have long-lasting effects on individuals, families, and communities. There is no single cause of suicide – it is influenced by many factors at the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels. 

The high prevalence of suicidal thoughts and behaviors among young people remains a national concern.(1) In 2022, suicide was the third leading cause of death among U.S. high school age youth (14-18 years)(2,3) The 2021 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) data revealed that approximately 30% of female high school students and 14% of male high school students seriously considered attempting suicide during the past year.(4) Such findings and surveillance of other behaviors related to suicide are critically important for understanding trends and for directing public health efforts.(5-7) YRBS data have been used to guide national decision-making, primary prevention resources and updates to the HHS National Strategy for Suicide Prevention.(8-10)

REFERENCES:

1.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 2024 National Strategy for Suicide Prevention. Washington, DC: HHS, 2024. Available at: https://www.hhs.gov/programs/prevention-and-wellness/mental-health-substance-abuse/national-strategy-suicide-prevention/index.html.

2.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics. National Vital Statistics System, Provisional Mortality on CDC WONDER Online Database. Data are from the final Multiple Cause of Death Files, 2018-2022, and from provisional data for years 2023-2024, as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics jurisdictions through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program. Available at:  http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10-provisional.html. 

3.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). WISQARS Leading Causes of Death Visualization Tool. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/LeadingCauses.html.

4.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Youth risk behavior survey data summary and trends report: 2011–2021. National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Division of Adolescent and School Health. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/YRBS_Data-Summary-Trends_Report2023_508.pdf.

5.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), National Strategy for Suicide Prevention Federal Action Plan: FY 2024–26. Washington, DC: HHS, April 2024. Available at: https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/nnsp-federal-action-plan.pdf 

6.	Lyerla R, Stroup DF. Toward a public health surveillance system for behavioral health. Public Health Rep. 2018;133(4):360-365. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354918772547. 

7.	Bitsko RH, Claussen AH, Lichstein J, Black LI, Jones SE, Danielson ML, et al. Mental health surveillance among children—United States, 2013–2019. MMWR Suppl. 2022;71(2):1. Available at: https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7102a1.

8.	NCSL Capitol to Capitol Update. May 6, 2024. Available at: https://www.ncsl.org/newsletter/details/capitol-to-capitol-may-6-2024.

9.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Suicide Prevention Resource for Action: A Compilation of the Best Available Evidence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC, 2022.

10.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Preventing Suicide: A Toolkit for High Schools. HHS Publication No. SMA-12-4669. Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services, SAMHSA, 2012. 

Mental Health

QUESTION(S):

26.	During the past 12 months, did you ever feel so sad or hopeless almost every day for two weeks or more in a row that you stopped doing some usual activities? 

81. 	During the past 30 days, how often was your mental health not good? (Poor mental health includes stress, anxiety, and depression.)

82.	During the past 12 months, when you have felt sad, empty, hopeless, angry, or anxious, how often did you get the kind of help you needed?

RATIONALE:

These three questions measure thoughts and behaviors that are associated with mental health problems among adolescents. Included in this set of questions is the assessment of feeling sad or hopeless, mental health quality of life, and receipt of help for emotional problems. The high prevalence of mental health challenges and risk for suicide among young people remains a national concern.(1) The 2021 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) revealed that more than 42% of high school students experienced persistent feelings of sadness or hopelessness during the past year, and 29% reported their mental health in the past 30 days was not good most of the time or always.(2) Such findings and surveillance of other experiences and behaviors related to mental health are critically important for understanding trends and for directing public health efforts.(3,4) These questions have been included on the YRBS previously and resulting data have been used to guide national decision-making, including efforts to expand school-based primary prevention(5,6) and updates to the HHS National Strategy for Suicide Prevention.(7)

The mental health needs of many adolescents go unmet as they and their families can face significant challenges navigating mental health care systems through complex networks of schools, primary care, community-based providers, and public and private insurers.(8) Even among those adolescents able to access services, the services provided may not meet their needs due to reasons such as a dearth of providers offering services tailored to meet the needs of adolescents, stigma, and structural barriers to accessing services that are provided.(9-11) To better understand the extent to which adolescents perceive that they are receiving help in response to negative emotions, a question assessing adolescent perceptions about whether they received help in response to feelings of mental and emotional distress is also included in this section. The question has been designed to be inclusive of primary prevention, early intervention, and multidisciplinary models of care provided in various settings, including schools. (12-14)

REFERENCES:

1.	Office of the Surgeon General. Protecting youth mental health: the US surgeon general’s advisory. Available at: https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf

2.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Youth risk behavior survey data summary and trends report: 2011–2021. National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Division of Adolescent and School Health. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/YRBS_Data-Summary-Trends_Report2023_508.pdf.

3.	Lyerla R, Stroup DF. Toward a public health surveillance system for behavioral health. Public Health Reports 2018;133(4):360-365. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354918772547. 

4.	Bitsko RH, Claussen AH, Lichstein J, Black LI, Jones SE, Danielson ML, et al. Mental health surveillance among children—United States, 2013–2019. MMWR Suppl. 2022;71(2):1. Available at: https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7102a1. 

5.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Promoting Mental Health and Well-Being in Schools: An Action Guide for School and District Leaders. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/mental-health-action-guide/index.html.

6.	Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). CMS Cross Cutting Initiative: Behavioral Health. Available at: https://www.cms.gov/files/document/cms-behavioral-health-strategy.pdf.

7.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 2024 National Strategy for Suicide Prevention. 2024. Available at: https://www.hhs.gov/programs/prevention-and-wellness/mental-health-substance-abuse/national-strategy-suicide-prevention/index.html.

8.	Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). 2022 National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Report. AHRQ Pub. No. 22(23)-0030. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK587182/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK587182.pdf

9.	Hoffmann JA, Attridge MM, Carroll MS, Simon N-JE, Beck AF, Alpern ER. Association of youth suicides and county-level mental health professional shortage areas in the US. JAMA Pediatrics 2023;177(1):71-80. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.4419. 

10.	Mojtabai R, Olfson M. National trends in mental health care for US adolescents. JAMA Psychiatry 2020;77(7):703-714.

11.	McGinty B. The future of public mental health: Challenges and opportunities. Milbank Quarterly 2023;101(S1):532-551. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12622. 

12.	Colizzi M, Lasalvia A, Ruggeri M. Prevention and early intervention in youth mental health: Is it time for a multidisciplinary and trans-diagnostic model for care?. International Journal of Mental Health Systems 2020;14:23. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12622. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-020-00356-9.

13.	Hoover S, Bostic J. Schools as a vital component of the child and adolescent mental health system. Psychiatric Services 2021;72(1):37-48.

14.	Fusar‐Poli P, Correll CU, Arango C, Berk M, Patel V, Ioannidis JP. Preventive psychiatry: A blueprint for improving the mental health of young people. World Psychiatry 2021;20(2):200-221.

Tobacco Product Use

QUESTION(S):

31.	Have you ever tried cigarette smoking, even one or two puffs?

32.	How old were you when you first smoked a cigarette, even one or two puffs?

33.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigarettes?

34.	During the past 30 days, on the days you smoked, how many cigarettes did you smoke per day?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure lifetime and current smoking patterns, and age of initiation. Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States, accounting for more than 480,000 deaths each year.(1) Nearly 90% of adult smokers begin before the age of 18,(1) and about 1,200 youth under 18 years smoke their first cigarette every day in the United States.(2) Cigarette smoking increases the risk of heart disease; chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; acute respiratory illness; stroke; and 12 cancers, including cancers of the lung, larynx, oral cavity, pharynx, pancreas, and cervix.(1,3) Compared to nonsmokers, cigarette smokers are more likely to drink alcohol, use marijuana and illicit drugs, engage in risky sexual behaviors, engage in physical fighting, carry a weapon, and attempt suicide.(3–4) 

The use of cigarettes among youth continues to be a public health concern. Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 17.8% had ever tried cigarette smoking and 3.8% had smoked cigarettes on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey.(5) In 2023, cigarettes were the second most used tobacco product among middle and high school students.(6) The percentage of high school students who had ever tried cigarette smoking did not change during 1991–1999 and then decreased during 1999–2019 (70%–24.0%), and further decreased in 2021 to 17.8%.(5,7) The percentage of high school students who had smoked cigarettes on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey increased significantly during 1991–1997 (28%–36%) and then decreased during 1997–2019 (36%–6.0%), and further decreased in 2021 to 3.8%.(5,7)

REFERENCES:
	
1.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking – 50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; Office on Smoking and Health; 2014. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/50th-anniversary/index.htm. 

2.	Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2023). Results from the 2022 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed tables. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2022-nsduh-detailed-tables

3.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Coordinating Center for Health Promotion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2012. Available at:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99237/. 

4.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2011. NSDUH Series H-41, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4658. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/results-2010-national-survey-drug-use-and-health-summary-national-findings-and-detailed. 

5.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

6.	Birdsey J, Cornelius M, Jamal A, Park-Lee E, Cooper MR, Wang J, Sawdey MD, Cullen KA, Neff L. Tobacco product use among U.S. middle and high school students — National Youth Tobacco Survey, 2023. MMWR 2023;72(44);1173–1182.

7.	Creamer MR, Everett Jones S, Gentzke AS, Jamal A, King BA. Tobacco product use among high school students —Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl 2020;69(1):56-63.

QUESTION(S):

35.	Have you ever used an electronic vapor product?

36.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you use an electronic vapor product?

37.	During the past 30 days, how did you usually get your electronic vapor products?

RATIONALE:
These questions measure the prevalence of electronic vapor product use and how youth obtain these products. Electronic vapor products are battery-powered electronic devices that usually contain a nicotine-based liquid that is vaporized and inhaled by the user.(1) Electronic vapor products come in many shapes and sizes and may be shaped like cigarettes or other tobacco products, USB devices, pen-shaped devices, or tank-style devices. Electronic vapor products include electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes), vapes, vape pens, electronic cigars (e-cigars), electronic hookahs (e-hookahs), hookah pens, and mods. Depending on the brand, e-cigarette cartridges or refillable e-liquids typically contain nicotine, a component to produce the aerosol (e.g., propylene glycol or glycerol), and flavorings (e.g., fruit, mint, or chocolate).(2) Manufacturers, distributors, and retailers market a wide range of products that appeal directly to school-age users, such as candy and fruit flavors, some of which come in devices designed to be easily concealed.(3)

According to the National Youth Tobacco Survey (NYTS), e-cigarettes have remained the most commonly used tobacco product among high school students since 2014.(4,5)  Recognizing this as a key component of youth tobacco product use surveillance, the YRBS has assessed the use of electronic vapor products since 2015.(6) Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 36.2% had ever tried electronic vapor products and 18% had used electronic vapor products on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey.(7) Although there was a decline in ever use of electronic vapor products (EVP) from 2015–2021, daily use of EVPs increased from 2.0% to 5.0% among high school students during this time period.(7) NYTS data showed that in 2023, about 2.1 million middle and high school students used an e-cigarette during the past 30 days, and among those students, 25.2% used e-cigarettes daily.(5)

In 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration finalized a rule to regulate e-cigarettes and other electronic vapor products as tobacco products.(8) This rule prevented sales to minors, prohibited samples, prohibited vending machine sales (unless in a facility that never admits minors), and mandated warning labels on packaging.(8) On December 20, 2019, legislation amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and raised the federal minimum age of sale of tobacco products from 18 to 21 years of age.(9) Given this evolving landscape, continued monitoring of how youth usually get their e-cigarettes will be important to inform surveillance and evaluation efforts in identifying potential shifts in youth e-cigarette access patterns. The question assessing access to electronic vapor products was revised for 2021 to provide more distinct response options for social sources inclusive of both paid and unpaid means of obtaining e-cigarettes.

REFERENCES:
1.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. E-Cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults. A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2016. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/e-cigarettes/index.htm. 

2.	Cobb NK, Byron MJ, Abrams DB, Shields PG. Novel nicotine delivery systems and public health: The rise of the "e-cigarette." American Journal of Public Health 2010;100:2340–2342. Available at: https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2010.199281. 

3.	Food and Drug Administration. Results from the Annual National Youth Tobacco Survey. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/youth-and-tobacco/results-annual-national-youth-tobacco-survey

4.	Gentzke AS, Creamer M, Cullen KA, et al. Vital Signs: Tobacco product use among middle and high school students — United States, 2011–2018. MMWR Morbi Mortal Wkly Rep 2019;68:157–164. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6806e1. 

5.	Birdsey J, Cornelius M, Jamal A, Park-Lee E, Cooper MR, Wang J, Sawdey MD, Cullen KA, Neff L. Tobacco product use among U.S. middle and high school students — National Youth Tobacco Survey, 2023. MMWR 2023;72(44);1173–1182.
   
6.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

7.	Oliver BE, Jones SE, Hops ED, Ashley CL, Miech R, Mpofu JJ. Electronic vapor product use among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(1):93–99.

8.	Food and Drug Administration. Deeming tobacco products to be subject to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, as amended by the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act; regulations on the sale and distribution of tobacco products and required warning statements for tobacco products; Final Rule. Federal Register 2016;81(90):28973-29106. Available at: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2016-05-10/pdf/2016-10685.pdf. 

9.	Food and Drug Administration. Newly Signed Legislation Raises Federal Minimum Age of Sale of Tobacco Products to 21. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/ctp-newsroom/newly-signed-legislation-raises-federal-minimum-age-sale-tobacco-products-21. 

QUESTION(S):

38.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you use chewing tobacco, snuff, dip, snus, dissolvable tobacco products, or nicotine pouches such as Copenhagen, Grizzly, Skoal, Camel Snus, on!, ZYN, or Velo? (Do not count any electronic vapor products.)

39.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigars, cigarillos, or little cigars, such as Swisher Sweets, Middleton’s (including Black & Mild), or Backwoods?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure smokeless tobacco use and cigar use. Smokeless tobacco products include chewing tobacco, snuff, dip, snus, or dissolvable tobacco products. (1) The smokeless tobacco brands provided as examples reflect the most commonly used brands based on market-share data. (2) Additionally, brands were updated for 2025 to include the nicotine pouch ZYN due to increasing popularity among youth, and on! due to FDA interest. 

Smokeless tobacco contains 28 known human carcinogens.(1) Use of smokeless tobacco products increases the risk of developing cancer of the oral cavity.(1) Other oral health problems strongly associated with smokeless tobacco use are leukoplakia (a lesion of the soft tissue that consists of a white patch or plaque that cannot be scraped off) and recession of the gums.(1,3,4) Smokeless tobacco use also causes an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.(5) In addition, adolescent smokeless tobacco users are more likely than nonusers to become adult cigarette smokers.(4) Smokeless tobacco may appeal to youth because it can come in flavors such as mint, fruit, or spice.(4) Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 2.5% had used smokeless tobacco (e.g., chewing tobacco, snuff, or dip) on at least 1 day during the 30 days before the survey.(6) 

Although there was a decline in current cigar use among high school students from 1999 to 2021 (from 17.7% to 3.1%),(6) cigar use remains a concern. Cigar smoking can cause lung cancer, coronary heart disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.(7-9)  The overall risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer is 7–10 times higher among cigar smokers compared to those who never smoked.(10)  The question assessing cigar use includes examples of commonly used brands.(2)

REFERENCES:

1.	World Health Organization. Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-Specific N-Nitrosamines. Lyon, France: World Health Organization; 2007. International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol. 89. Available at: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol89/mono89.pdf.	

2.	Wells Fargo Securities. Equity Research/Tobacco. Nielsen: Tobacco ‘All Channel’ Data 4/21. May 2018. Available at: https://qhi7a3oj76cn9awl3qcqrh3o-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Wells-Fargo-report.pdf. 

3.	Johnson GK, Slach NA. Impact of tobacco use on periodontal status. Journal of Dental Education 2001;65:313–321. Available at: http://www.jdentaled.org/content/65/4/313.long. 

4.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Coordinating Center for Health Promotion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2012. Available at:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK99237/. 

5.	Henley SJ, Thun MJ, Connell C, Calle EE. Two large prospective studies of mortality among men who use snuff or chewing tobacco (United States). Cancer Causes and Control 2005;16:347–358. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10552-004-5519-6. 

6.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

7.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 9: Cigars: Health Effects and Trends. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Cancer Institute; 1998. No. 98-4302:217. Available at: http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/brp/tcrb/monographs/9/m9_complete.PDF. 

8.	Shaper AG, Wannamethee SG, Walker M. Pipe and cigar smoking and major cardiovascular events, cancer incidence and all-cause mortality in middle-age British men. International Journal of Epidemiology 2003;32:802–808. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/32/5/802/665725. 

9.	Rodriguez J, Jiang R, Johnson WC, MacKenzie BA, Smith LJ, Barr RG. The association of pipe and cigar use with cotinine levels, lung function, and airflow obstruction. A cross-sectional study. Annals of Internal Medicine 2010;152:201–10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2906916/. 

10.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Oral Health in America: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health; 2000. Available at: https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/sites/default/files/2017-10/hck1ocv.%40www.surgeon.fullrpt.pdf. 

Alcohol Use

QUESTION(S):

40.	How old were you when you had your first drink of alcohol other than a few sips?

41.	During the past 30 days, on how many days did you have at least one drink of alcohol?

42.	During the past 30 days, what is the largest number of alcoholic drinks you had in a row, that is, within a couple of hours? 	

43. 	During the past 30 days, how did you usually get the alcohol you drank?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure lifetime and current use of alcohol, age of initiation, the largest number of alcoholic drinks consumed during a drinking occasion, and access to alcohol.  Excessive drinking is responsible for about 4,000 deaths among underage youth each year, and drinking by individuals younger than age 21 years cost the U.S. $24 billion in 2010.(1,2) Underage drinking contributes to a wide range of health and social problems, including motor vehicle crashes, interpersonal violence (e.g., physical and sexual assaults), unintentional injuries (e.g., burns, falls, drownings), sexual risk behaviors, academic and memory problems, alcohol poisonings and other substance use.(3-5) Early initiation of drinking is also associated with suicide and an increased risk of developing alcohol and substance use disorders later in life.(3,6,7)  

Binge drinking (i.e., the consumption of 5 or more drinks for males, or 4 or more drinks for females, on an occasion) is the most common pattern of excessive alcohol use in the United States, and most people younger than age 21 who drink alcohol report binge drinking, often consuming large amounts of alcohol.(4,8) More than two in five high school students who reported binge drinking consumed eight or more drinks in a row.(8) Limiting youth access to alcohol has reduced underage alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.(9,10) However, youth continue to obtain alcohol from a variety of sources, particularly from adults of legal drinking age.(8,11) 

Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 15% reported they had their first drink of alcohol (more than a few sips) before age 13 and 23% reported they drank at least one drink of alcohol during the 30 days before the survey.(11) The percentage of high school students who reported current alcohol use decreased significantly during 1991–2021 (from 51% to 23%).(11) Likewise, the percentage of high school students reporting alcohol initiation younger than 13 years decreased significantly during 1991-2021 and the percentage reporting 10 or more drinks as the largest number of drinks during an occasion decreased significantly during 2013-2021.(11) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Alcohol-Related Disease Impact (ARDI) system, 2024. Available at www.cdc.gov/ARDI. 

2.	Sacks JJ, Gonzales KR, Bouchery EE, Tomedi LE, Brewer RD. 2010 National and state costs of excessive alcohol consumption. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2015; 49(5):e73–e79. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.05.031. 

3.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2023. Report to Congress on the Prevention and Reduction of Underage Drinking. Available at: https://www.stopalcoholabuse.gov/about-iccpud/data/national-reports/report-to-congress/default.aspx

4.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About Underage Drinking. Available at:  https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/underage-drinking/index.html

5.	Esser MB, Pickens CM, Guy GP Jr, Evans ME. Binge drinking, other substance use, and concurrent use in the U.S., 2016-2018. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2021;60:169–178.

6.	Swahn MH, Bossarte RM, Sullivent EE. Age of alcohol use initiation, suicidal behavior, and peer and dating violence victimization and perpetration among high-risk, seventh-grade adolescents. Pediatrics 2008;121(2):297–305. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-2348. 

7.	Bossarte RM, Swahn MH. The associations between early alcohol use and suicide attempts among adolescents with a history of major depression. Addictive Behaviors 2011;36(5):532–535. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.12.031. 

8.	Esser MB, Clayton H, Demissie Z, Kanny D, Brewer RD. Current and binge drinking among high school students – United States, 1991–2015. MMWR 2017;66(18):474–478. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6618a4. 

9.	DeJong W, Blanchette J. Case closed: research evidence on the positive public health impact of the age 21 minimum legal drinking age in the United States. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 2014;75(Suppl 17):108–115. Available at: https://doi.org/10.15288/jsads.2014.s17.108. 

10.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Why A Minimum Legal Drinking Age of 21 Works. Available at:  https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/underage-drinking/minimum-legal-drinking-age.html.

11.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

Drug Use

QUESTION(S):

44.	During your life, how many times have you used marijuana?

45.	How old were you when you tried marijuana for the first time?

46.	During the past 30 days, how many times did you use marijuana?

47. 	During your life, how many times have you taken prescription pain medicine without a doctor’s prescription or differently than how a doctor told you to use it?

48.	During your life, how many times have you used any form of cocaine, including powder, crack, or freebase?

49.	During your life, how many times have you sniffed glue, breathed the contents of aerosol spray cans, or inhaled any paints or sprays to get high?

50.	During your life, how many times have you used heroin (also called smack, junk, or China White)?

51.	During your life, how many times have you used methamphetamines (also called speed, crystal meth, crank, ice, or meth)?

52.	During your life, how many times have you used ecstasy (also called MDMA or Molly)?

53.	During your life, how many times have you used a needle to inject any illegal drug into your body?

RATIONALE:

These questions measure lifetime and current use of marijuana and ever use of cocaine, inhalants, heroin, methamphetamines, ecstasy, and injected drugs; and use of prescription pain medicine without a doctor’s prescription or used in a manner differently than instructed by a doctor. Among youth, illegal drug use is associated with heavy alcohol and tobacco use,(1) violence and delinquency,(2-4) and suicide.(5) Marijuana use among youth—especially among youth who use marijuana more frequently—may harm the developing brain,(6,7) increase risk of mental health issues,(6) and increase the potential for addiction.(8) All school districts prohibit illegal drug possession or use by students on school property.(9) 

Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 28% had used marijuana, 12% had taken prescription opioids without a doctor’s prescription or differently than how a doctor told them to use it, 3% had used any form of cocaine, 3% had used ecstasy, 2% had used methamphetamines, and 1% had used heroin one or more times during their life.(10) In 2021, 8% of high school students nationwide had sniffed glue, breathed the contents of aerosol spray cans, or inhaled any paints or sprays to get high and 1% had used a needle to inject any illegal drug into their body one or more times during their life.(10) The percentage of high school students who had used marijuana, alcohol, cocaine, and misused prescription opioids one or more times during their life decreased during 2019–2021. The percentage of high school students who had sniffed glue, breathed the contents of aerosol spray cans, or inhaled any paints or sprays to get high one or more times during their life increased during 2019–2021. All other lifetime drug use (i.e., ecstasy, methamphetamine, heroin, injection drug use, synthetic marijuana) did not change during 2019-2021.(10)

REFERENCES:

1.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. NSDUH Series H-41, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4658. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2011. Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHNationalFindingsResults2010-web/2k10ResultsRev/NSDUHresultsRev2010.pdf. 

2.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Youth violence and illicit drug use. The NSDUH Report 2006;5:1–3. Available at: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED495798.pdf. 

3.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Marijuana use and delinquent behaviors among youths. The NSDUH Report January 9, 2004. Available at: http://jtnn.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Marijuana-Behaviors-and-Delinquent-Behaviors-Among-Youth.pdf.

4.	Young AM, Glover N, Havens JR. Nonmedical use of prescription medications among adolescents in the United States: a systematic review. Journal of Adolescent Health 2012;51(1):6–17. 

5.	Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Substance use and the risk of suicide among youths. The NHSDA Report July 12, 2002. Available at: https://www.datafiles.samhsa.gov/study-publication/substance-use-and-risk-suicide-among-youths-nid14738. 

6.	National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. The health effects of cannabis and cannabinoids: current state of evidence and recommendations for research.  Washington, DC; 2017.

7.	Batalla A, Bhattacharyya S, Yücel M, Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Nogué S, Torrens M, Pujol J, Farré M, Martin-Santos R. Structural and functional imaging studies in chronic cannabis users: a systematic review of adolescent and adult findings. PLoS One 2013;8(2):e55821.

8.	Hasin DS, Saha TD, Kerridge BT, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Zhang H, Jung J, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ, Smith SM, Huang B, Grant BF. Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013. JAMA Psychiatry 2015;72(12):1235–1242.

9.	Everett Jones S, Fisher CJ, Greene BZ, Hertz MF, Pritzl J. Healthy and safe school environment, part I: results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2006. Journal of School Health 2007;77(8):522–543. 

10.	Hoots BE, Li J, Hertz MF, et al. Alcohol and other substance use before and during the COVID-19 pandemic among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(Suppl-1):84–92. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7201a10 

Sexual Behaviors that Contribute to Unintended Pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Infections, Including HIV Infection

QUESTION(S):

54.	Have you ever had sexual intercourse?

55.	How old were you when you had sexual intercourse for the first time?

56.	During your life, with how many people have you had sexual intercourse?

57.	During the past 3 months, with how many people did you have sexual intercourse?

58.	Did you drink alcohol or use drugs before you had sexual intercourse the last time?

59.	The last time you had sexual intercourse, did you or your partner use a condom?

60.	The last time you had sexual intercourse with an opposite-sex partner, what one method did you or your partner use to prevent pregnancy?

RATIONALE:
These questions measure the prevalence of sexual activity, age at first sexual intercourse, number of sexual partners, and alcohol and other drug use, condom use, and contraceptive use at last sexual intercourse. Early initiation of sexual intercourse is associated with having a greater number of lifetime sexual partners,(1,2) decreased use of  contraception(3) and higher risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)(4) and pregnancy.(5) Further, evidence connects adolescent sexual activity and substance use risk behaviors.(6) 
Continued surveillance of HIV, other STIs, and unintended pregnancy among adolescents and young adults is needed to inform public health practice.(7,8) Estimates suggest that while representing 25% of the ever sexually active population, persons aged 15 to 24 years acquire more than half of all new STIs.(9) Both chlamydia and gonorrhea rates are high among adolescent females between the ages of 15 to 19 years (2,652.3 cases per 100,000 individuals and 525.7 cases per 100,000 individuals, respectively in 2022).(9) Similarly, young adult women (ages of 20 to 24) also reported high chlamydia and gonorrhea rates in 2022  (3,532.3 cases per 100,000 individuals and 739.4 cases per 100,000 individuals, respectively).(9)  Annual HIV incidence  in 2022, compared with 2018, decreased among persons aged 13–24 years; (10) yet in the United States and dependent areas, there were an estimated 6,400 persons ages 13–24 years newly diagnosed with HIV infection (10) and 42,200 living with HIV infection.(10)  In 2022, young people aged 13–24 accounted for 20% of all new HIV infections in the United States.(10)
	
From 2011 to 2021, data showed declines in sexual risk behaviors among U.S. high school students.(10) Nationwide, in 2021, 30% of high school students had ever had sexual intercourse, 6% had had sexual intercourse with four or more persons during their life, and 21% had had sexual intercourse with at least one person during the 3 months before the survey.(11, 12) The percentage of students who ever had sexual intercourse decreased during 2011–2021 (females: 46-31%, males: 39-29%).(11, 12) The percentage of students who had sexual intercourse with four or more persons during their life decreased during 2011–2021 (females: 13-5%, males: 18-7%).(11, 12) Most recently, in 2021, among the 21.6% of students who were currently sexually active, 57.5% of male students reported that either they or their partner had used a condom during last sexual intercourse.(13) Moreover, compared with female students’ report of contraceptive method used (self or partner), male students were less likely to report they or their partner used no contraceptive method (15.2% versus 11.3%) and shot, patch, or birth control ring (4.6% versus 2.3%) at last sexual intercourse in 2021.(13) To reach STI/HIV and pregnancy prevention goals for all adolescents, monitoring condom and contraceptive use behaviors among sexually active youth is essential.(7, 14-16) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Kahn NF, Halpern CT. Associations between patterns of sexual initiation, sexual partnering, and sexual health outcomes from adolescence to early adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2018;47(6):1791-1810. 

2.	Manning WD, Longmore MA, Giordano PC. The relationship context of contraceptive use at first intercourse. Family Planning Perspectives 2000;32(3):104–110.

3.	Kaestle CE, Halpern CT, Miller WC, Ford CA. Young age at first sexual intercourse and sexually transmitted infections in adolescents and young adults. American Journal of Epidemiology 2005;161(8):774–780.
4.	Thornberry TP, Smith CA, Howard GJ. Risk factors for teenage fatherhood. Journal of Marriage & Family 1997;59:505–522.

5.	O'Donnell L, O'Donnell CR, Stueve A. Early sexual initiation and subsequent sex-related risks among urban minority youth: the reach for health study. Family Planning Perspectives 2001:268-275.

6.	Cavazos-Rehg PA, Krauss MJ, Spitznagel EL, Schootman M, Cottler LB, Bierut LJ. Number of sexual partners and associations with initiation and intensity of substance use. AIDS and Behavior 2011;15:869-874.

7.	National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2021. Sexually Transmitted Infections: Adopting a Sexual Health Paradigm. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.17226/25955

8.	Abma JC, Martinez GM. Teenagers in the United States: Sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing, 2015–2019. National Health Statistics Reports; no 196. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2023. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc:134957. 

9.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2022. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2024. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/std/statistics/2022/default.htm 

10.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV incidence and prevalence in the United States, 2018–2022. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2024;29(No. 1). https://www.cdc.gov/hiv-data/nhss/estimated-hiv-incidence-and-prevalence.html. Published May 2024.

11.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Survey: Data Summary & Trends Report 20119-2021. 2022. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/yrbs_data_summary_and_trends.htm. 

12.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System – YRBS — United States, 2021 Supplementary Tables. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/supplemental-mmwr/index.htm  

13.	Szucs LE, Pampati S, Li J, et al. Role of the COVID-19 pandemic on sexual behaviors and receipt of sexual and reproductive health services among U.S. high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019–2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(Suppl-1):55–65. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7201a7.

14.	Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, Johnston CM, Muzny CA, Park I, Reno H, Zenilman JM, Bolan GA. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recommendations and Reports 2021;70(4):1. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/rr/rr7004a1.htm.

15.	The White House. 2021. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022–2025. Washington, DC. Available at: https://files.hiv.gov/s3fs-public/NHAS-2022-2025.pdf

16.	Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (n.d.). Adolescents. Healthy People 2030. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at: https://health.gov/healthypeople/objectives-and-data/browse-objectives/adolescents. 

HIV/STI Testing

QUESTION(S):

78.	Have you ever been tested for HIV, the virus that causes AIDS? (Do not count tests done if 
	you donated blood.)

79.	During the past 12 months, have you been tested for a sexually transmitted infection (STI) other than HIV, such as chlamydia or gonorrhea?

RATIONALE: 

These questions measure whether high school students have ever been tested for HIV and if they have been tested for an STI during the 12 months before the survey. Because adolescents and young people contract HIV and other STIs at high rates,(1-4) national recommendations and clinical guidelines suggest HIV testing and regular STI testing for sexually active young people.(5-7) HIV testing is an integral part of the National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States, and routine testing is one of the most important strategies recommended for reducing the spread of HIV and improving the health outcomes for those already infected.(5,8) State and local education agencies and schools are essential partners in this effort. In particular, schools have a critical role to play in facilitating delivery of HIV and STI prevention for adolescents.(9,10) State and local data on HIV and STI testing will help agencies examine local trends in testing behaviors, identify disparities in testing, and determine whether high risk youth are being tested.(9,10) In 2021, 5.8% of high school students nationwide had ever been tested for HIV.(11) The percentage of high school students who have ever been tested for HIV did not change from 2005–2013 (11.9%–12.9%), but significantly decreased from 2013–2021 (12.9–5.8%).(11) A similar trend was seen in STI testing, where a decrease in high school students who were tested for STIs (other than HIV) during the 12 months prior to the survey was observed from 2019-2021 (8.6%-5.2%).(11) In 2019, 20.4% of sexually active high school students reporting having been tested for an STI during the 12 months before the survey.(12)

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NCHHSTP AtlasPlus. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/about/atlasplus.html. 

2.	Satterwhite CL, Torrone E, Meites E, Dunne EF, Mahajan R, Bañez Ocfemia MC, Su J, Xu F, Weinstock H. Sexually transmitted infections among US women and men: prevalence and incidence estimates, 2008. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2013;40(3):187–193.

3.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Infections Surveillance 2022. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/std/statistics/2022/default.htm.

4.	Forhan SE, Gottlieb SL, Sternberg MR, Xu F, Datta SD, McQuillan GM, Berman SM, Markowitz LE. Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among female adolescents ages 14 to 19 in the United States. Pediatrics 2009;124(6):1505–1512.

5. 	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR 2006;55(RR-14). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5514a1.htm. 

6.	Committee on Adolescence, Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Screening for nonviral sexually transmitted infections in adolescents and young adults. Pediatrics 2014;134(1):e302-311. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1024.

7.	US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA 2021;326(10):9490956. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.14081. 

8.	The White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022-2025. Washington, DC: The White House Office of National AIDS Policy. Available at: https://hivgov-prod-v3.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/NHAS-2022-2025.pdf. 
 
9.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How Schools Can Support HIV Testing Among Adolescents. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2020. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/sexualbehaviors/pdf/hiv_testing_fact_sheet.pdf.  

10.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. PS18-1807 program guidance: Guidance for school-based HIV/STD prevention (component 2) recipients of PS18-1807. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2019. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/fundedprograms/1807/resources/PS18-1807-GUIDANCE508.pdf. 

11.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

12.	Liddon N, Pampati S, Dunville R, Kilmer G, Steiner RJ. Annual STI testing among sexually active adolescents. Pediatrics 2022;149(5):e2021051893.

Sexual Identity

QUESTION(S):

61.	During your life, with whom have you had sexual contact?

62.	Which of the following best describes you?

63.	Some people describe themselves as transgender when their sex at birth does not match the way they think or feel about their gender. Are you transgender?

RATIONALE:
These questions measure sex of sexual partners, sexual identity, and gender identity. Measuring sex of sexual partners and sexual identity enables identification of youth who are sexual minorities. Sexual minority refers to individuals who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or some other non-heterosexual identity, as well as those who have sexual contact with persons of the same or both sexes. Measuring gender identity enables identification of youth who are gender minorities. Gender minority refers to individuals who identify as transgender or another gender identity that is different from their sex assigned at birth, as opposed to cisgender individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth. Both sexual and gender minority youth are diverse populations, representing all races, ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and all parts of the country. 

While many sexual and gender minority youth cope with the transition from childhood to adulthood successfully and become healthy and productive adults, others struggle as a result of challenges such as stigma, discrimination, family disapproval, social rejection, and violence.(1,2) YRBS data support this reality, finding that sexual minority youth, both by sexual identity and sex of sexual contacts, have higher rates of violence victimization than youth who identify as heterosexual or only report opposite-sex sexual contacts.(3) State and local YRBS data also reveal that transgender youth have higher rates of violence victimization than cisgender youth.(4) Sexual and gender minority youth also face well-documented health disparities. For example, young gay and bisexual males ages 13–24 made up 25% of new HIV diagnoses among gay and bisexual men in the US in 2021,(5) adolescent bisexual females are more likely engage in sexual risk behaviors such as not using condoms or other contraceptives compared to heterosexual females,(6) and transgender youth are at increased risk of suicidality, substance use, and sexual risk behaviors compared to their cisgender peers.(4) Data on the sexual and gender minority status of young people are critical for documenting the disproportionate rates at which sexual and gender minority students experience many health risks compared to sexual and gender majority students and for developing, implementing, and evaluating policies and programs designed to mitigate these disparities. In 2021, 74% of high school students nationwide identified as heterosexual, 3% identified as gay or lesbian, 12% identified as bisexual, and 9% reported another sexual identity or questioning their sexual identity.(7) Also in 2021, 35% of high school students nationwide had had sexual contact with only the opposite sex, 2% had had sexual contact with only the same sex, 6% had had sexual contact with both sexes, and 57% had had no sexual contact.(7) Among the eighteen states measuring gender identity in 2021, 2.9% of youth identified as transgender and 2.6% reported questioning if they were transgender.(4)

REFERENCES:

1.	Meyer IH, Frost DM. Minority stress and the health of sexual minorities. In: Patterson CJ, D'Augelli AR, eds. Handbook of Psychology and Sexual Orientation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2013:252-266.

2.	Tan KKH, Treharne GJ, Ellis SJ, Schmidt JM, Veale JF. Gender minority stress: a critical review. Journal of Homosexuality 2020;67(10):1471–89. 

3.	Johns MM, Lowry R, Haderxhanaj LT, Rasberry CN, Robin L, Scales L, Stone D, Suarez NA. Trends in violence victimization and suicide risk by sexual identity among high school students—Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl 2020;69(Suppl 1):19-27

4.	Suarez NA, McKinnon II, Krause KH, Rasberry CN, Pampati S, Underwood JM. Disparities in behaviors and experiences among transgender and cisgender high school students — 18 U.S. states, 2021. Ann Epidemiol. 2024;94:113-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2024.05.004

5.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fast Facts: HIV and Gay and Bisexual Men. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/data-research/facts-stats/gay-bisexual-men.html. 

6.	Rasberry CN, Lowry R, Johns M, Robin L, Dunville R, Pampati S, Dittus PJ, Balaji A. Sexual risk behavior differences among sexual minority high school students — United States, 2015 and 2017. MMWR 2018;67:1007–1011.

7.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. YRBS — United States, 2021 Supplementary Tables. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/supplemental-mmwr/index.htm.

Dietary Behaviors

QUESTION(S):

66.	During the past 7 days, how many times did you eat fruit? (Do not count fruit juice.)

67.	During the past 7 days, how many times did you eat green salad?

68.	During the past 7 days, how many times did you eat potatoes? (Do not count french fries, fried potatoes, or potato chips.)

69.	During the past 7 days, how many times did you eat carrots?

70.	During the past 7 days, how many times did you eat other vegetables? (Do not count green salad, potatoes, or carrots.)

71.	During the past 7 days, how many times per day did you usually drink a can, bottle, or glass of soda or pop, such as Coke, Pepsi, or Sprite? (Do not count diet soda or diet pop.)

72.	During the past 7 days, on how many days did you eat breakfast?

RATIONALE:
These questions are used to measure population-level trends in dietary behaviors, including consumption of fruits, vegetables, beverages, and breakfast. The fruit and vegetable questions are similar to questions asked of adults on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 2009 survey questionnaire.(1) Fruits and vegetables are good sources of complex carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other substances that are important for good health.(2) There is probable evidence to suggest that dietary patterns with higher intakes of fruits and vegetables are associated with a decreased risk for some types of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and stroke.(2,3) Although data are limited, an increased intake of fruits and vegetables appears to be associated with a decreased risk of being overweight.(2,4) However, most youth do not meet the recommendations for fruit and vegetable consumption.(5–7) In 2021, during the 7 days before the survey, 47% of high school students nationwide had eaten fruit or drunk 100% fruit juice less than one time per day and 45% of students had eaten vegetables less than one time per day.(8) During 2019–2021, the percentage of students who had eaten fruit or drunk 100% fruit juices less than one time per day increased (42%–47%).(8) There was also a significant increase in the percentage of students who had eaten vegetables less than one time per day between 2019 and 2021 (41%–45%).(8) 
	
Although total sugar-sweetened beverage consumption has significantly decreased during the last decade, mainly due to the decrease in regular soda intake, the calorie intake from sugar-sweetened beverages remain high.(9) Furthermore, sugar-sweetened beverages are a primary source of added sugars in the diet of U.S. children,(10) and contribute on average 132 kcal/day.(9) Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with a less healthy diet,(11) increased risk of dental decay (12) and obesity among children,(13) and the development of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes.(14) Nationwide in 2021, 15% of high school students had drunk a can, bottle, or glass of soda or pop (not counting diet soda or diet pop) one or more times per day during the 7 days before the survey.(8) The percentage of students who drank soda or pop one or more times per day did not change significantly during 2019–2021 .(8) 
	
Eating breakfast is associated with improved nutrient intake(2) and better cognitive function, academic performance, school attendance rates, psychosocial function, and mood.(14-18) In 2021, 75% of high school students nationwide did not eat breakfast on all 7 days before the survey.(8) The percentage of students who did not eat breakfast on all 7 days increased significantly during 2019–2021 (67%–75%).(8) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System survey questionnaire. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2009. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/questionnaires/pdf-ques/2009brfss.pdf. 

2.	U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020–2025. 9th Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2020. Available at: https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/. 

3.	Boeing H, Bechthold A, Bub A, Ellinger S, Haller D, Kroke A, Leschik-Bonnet E, Müller MJ, Oberritter H, Schulze M. Critical review: vegetables and fruit in the prevention of chronic diseases. European Journal of Nutrition 2012;51:637–663.

4.	Nour M, Lutze SA, Grech A, Allman-Farinelli. The relationship between vegetable intake and weight outcomes: a systematic review of cohort studies. Nutrients 2018;10(11):1626.

5.	Kim SA, Moore LV, Galuska D, Wright AP, Harris D, Grummer-Strawn LM, Merlo CL, Nihiser AJ, Rhodes DG. Vital signs: fruit and vegetable intake among children — United States, 2003–2010. MMWR 2014;63(31):671–676.

6.	Krebs-Smith SM, Guenther PM, Subar AF, Kirkpatrick SI, Dodd KW. Americans do not meet dietary recommendations. Journal of Nutrition 2010;140:1832–1838.

7.	Lange SJ, Moore LV, Harris DM, Merlo CL, Lee SH, Demissie Z, Galuska DA. Percentage of adolescents meeting federal fruit and vegetable intake recommendations — Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, United States, 2017. MMWR 2021;22;70(3):69–74.

8.	Michael SL, Jones SE, Merlo CL, et al. Dietary and physical activity behaviors in 2021 and changes from 2019 to 2021 among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(Suppl-1):75–83. . 

9.	Bleich SN, Vercammen KA, Koma JW, Li Z. Trends in beverage consumption among children and adults, 2003‒2014. Obesity 2018;26(2):432–441. 

10.	Drewnowski A, Rehm CD. Consumption of added sugars among US children and adults by food purchase location and food source. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2014;100(3):901–907. 

11.	Leung CW, DiMatteo SG, Gosliner WA, Ritchie LD. Sugar-sweetened beverage and water intake in relation to diet quality in U.S. children. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2018;54(3):394–402.

12.	Valenzuela MJ, Waterhouse B, Aggarwal VR, Bloor K, Doran T. Effect of sugar-sweetened beverages on oral health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Public Health 2020;31(1):122–129.

13.	Luger M, Lafontan M, Bes-Rastrollo M, Winzer E, Yumuk V, Farpour-Lambert N. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review from 2013 to 2015 and a comparison with previous studies. Obesity Facts 2017;10(6):674–693.

14.	Malik VS, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and cardiometabolic health: An update of the evidence. Nutrients 2019;11(8):1840.

15.	Rampersaud GC, Pereira M, Girard BL, Adams J, Metzl JD. Breakfast habits, nutritional status, body weight, and academic performance in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2005;105:743–760.

16.	Hoyland A, Dye L, Lawton CL. A systematic review of the effect of breakfast on the cognitive performance of children and adolescents. Nutrition Research Reviews 2009;22:220–243.

17.	Michael SL, Merlo CL, Basch CE, Wentzel KR, Wechsler H. Critical connections: health and academics. Journal of School Health 2015;85:740–758.		

18.	Hawkins GT, Lee SH, Michael SL, Merlo CL, Lee SM, King BA, Rasberry CN, Underwood JM. Individual and collective positive health behaviors and academic achievement among U.S. high school students, Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2017.  American Journal of Health Promotion 2022;36(4):651–661. 

Physical Activity 

QUESTION(S):

73.	During the past 7 days, on how many days were you physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes per day? (Add up all the time you spent in any kind of physical activity that increased your heart rate and made you breathe hard some of the time.)

74.	In an average week when you are in school, on how many days do you go to physical education (PE) classes?

75.	During the past 12 months, on how many sports teams did you play? (Count any teams run by your school or community groups.)

RATIONALE:
	
These questions measure participation in physical activity and team sports and attendance in physical education classes. Participation in regular physical activity among young people can help build and maintain healthy bones and muscles, maintain body weight and reduce body fat, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety, and promote psychological well-being.(1)  Over time, regular physical activity decreases the risk of high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, obesity, some types of cancer, and premature death.(1) Physical activity has also been documented as a protective factor that promotes students’ health and well-being.(2) In 2018, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommended that children and adolescents ages 6 through 17 years do 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily.(3) In 2021, 23.9% of students were physically active for ≥60 minutes/day on all 7 days, 19.0% had attended physical education classes on all 5 days of school, and 49.1% had played on ≥1 sports team.(4) 

In 2023, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published a physical activity report as part of a special issue of the Journal of School Health presenting a decade of school-based physical activity intervention research conducted across multiple Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child components.(5) This report reinforces the use of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) to increase student physical activity before, during, and after school.(5,6) A CSPAP includes strong coordination across five components: physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community engagement.(6) Physical education is the cornerstone of CSPAP with research showing that school physical education classes can increase adolescent participation in physical activity(7–13) and help high school students develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need to engage in lifelong physical activity.(3,14,15) Healthy People 2030, a U.S. government health initiative, has also indicated that increasing youth sports participation to 63.3% is a priority in the U.S.(16) 

REFERENCES:

1.	2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee. 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Scientific Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2018. Available at: https://health.gov/paguidelines/second-edition/report.aspx. 

2.	Michael SL, Li J, Sliwa S, Cornett K, Hertz M. Association between adolescent self-reported physical activity behaviors and feeling close to people at school during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2024;18(3):364-375. 

3.	US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2018. Available at: https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/Physical_Activity_Guidelines_2nd_edition.pdf. 

4.	Michael SL, Jones SE, Merlo CL, et al. Dietary and physical activity behaviors in 2021 and changes from 2019 to 2021 among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(Suppl-1):75–83. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7201a9 

5.	Cornett K, Murfay K, Fulton J. Physical activity interventions during the school day: reviewing policies, practices, and benefits. J Sch Health. 2023;93(9):778-787. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13371.

6.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs: A Guide for Schools. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/physicalactivity/pdf/13_242620-A_CSPAP_SchoolPhysActivityPrograms_Final_508_12192013.pdf. 

7.	Metcalf B, Henley M, Wilkin T. Effectiveness of intervention on physical activity of children: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials with objectively measured outcomes. British Medical Journal 2012:e345–347. 

8.	Dobbins M, Husson H, DeCorby K, LaRocca RL. School-based physical activity programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents aged 6 to 18 (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD007651. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007651.pub2.

9.	Lonsdale C, Rosenkranz RR, Peralta LR, Bennie A, Fahey P, Lubans DR. A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions designed to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in school physical education. Preventive Medicine 2013; 56(2):152–161.

10.	Kuhn A, Stoepker P, Dauenhauer B, Carson RL. Comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) research to practice literature review. Washington, DC: Active Schools; 2018.

11.	Brusseau TA, Kulinna PH. An examination of four traditional school physical activity models on children's step counts and MVPA. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 2015;86(1):88-93. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2014.977431. 

12.	Erfle SE, Gamble A. Effects of daily physical education on physical fitness and weight status in middle school adolescents. Journal of School Health 2015;85(1):27-35. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12217.

13.	Reed JA, Maslow AL, Long S, Hughey M. Examining the impact of 45 minutes of daily physical education on cognitive ability, fitness performance, and body composition of African American youth. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2013;10(2):185-97. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.10.2.185.

14.	Grim Melissa, Petosa R, Hortz B, Hunt L. Formative evaluation of MyFit: a curriculum to promote self-regulation of physical activity among middle school students. Journal of Health Education 2013;44(2):81-87. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2013.764238.

15.	SHAPE America. The Essential Components of Physical Education. Reston, VA: SHAPE America – Society of Health and Physical Educators; 2015. Available at: http://www.shapeamerica.org/upload/TheEssentialComponentsOfPhysicalEducation.pdf.  

16.	Increase the proportion of children and adolescents who play sports— PA-12. Healthy People 2030, HHS, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Available at: https://health.gov/healthypeople/objectives-anddata/browse-objectives/physical-activity/increase-proportion-childrenand-adolescents-who-play-sports-pa-12. 

Concussion
QUESTION(S):

76.	During the past 12 months, how many times did you have a concussion from playing a sport or being physically active?

RATIONALE:

This question measures the prevalence of self-reported concussions from playing sports or being physically active. Among high school students nationwide in 2019, 15% of students experienced a sports- or physical activity-related concussion during the 12 months before the survey.(1)
Compared with older athletes, high school athletes have shown increased susceptibility to concussions and longer recovery times,(2) making concussions among youths playing a sport or being physically active an area of concern. Also of concern are the short-term and long-term sequelae of concussions, which can include cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes.(2) In 2013, the Institute of Medicine (now National Academy of Sciences) produced a report entitled Sports Related Concussions in Youth: Improving the Science, Changing the Culture that challenged CDC to improve the surveillance of sports-related concussions among youth.(2) The report identified a number of gaps in current surveillance efforts. Specifically, current surveillance systems only captured concussions experienced in organized, school-based sports at the high school or college level, or only captured sports-related concussions seen in emergency departments.(2) As a result, there were no comprehensive national incidence estimates of sports- and recreation-related concussions experienced by youth.
			
States may be particularly interested in more comprehensive estimates of sports- and recreation-related concussions because legislation related to sports concussions was passed in all 50 states within the past 10-15 years. This legislation, commonly referred to as “Return to Play” laws, typically have three core components: concussion education for athletes, parents, and coaches; restrictions on returning to play on the same day of a suspected concussion; and medical clearance prior to returning to play after a concussion. Being able to monitor the incidence of sports- and recreation-related concussions at the state level allows states to monitor the effects of this legislation as well as the impact of prevention efforts.  

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

2.	Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. Sports-related Concussions in Youth: Improving the Science, Changing the Culture. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2014. Available at: http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/Reports/2013/Sports-Related-Concussions-in-Youth-Improving-the-Science-Changing-the-Culture.aspx.  

Social Media

QUESTION(S):

77.	How often do you use social media?

RATIONALE:

This question measures frequency of social media use. Recent findings from a nationally representative survey showed that young adults aged 18 to 29 are more likely to use social media platforms than older adults, with use ranging from 62% to 93% across the most common platforms.(1) Among adolescents aged 13 to 17, research found similar usage across these platforms (59% to 93%), with one in five teens reporting near constant social media use on some platforms.(2) Social media use has been linked to a number of mental health risk behaviors and outcomes among youth including chronic sleep deprivation,(3) mental distress,(4) and suicidal behavior,(5) although many of these studies have been cross-sectional.(6) At least one longitudinal study that followed youth and young adults across eight years found no association between social media use and mental health outcomes.(7) However, there is evidence that there may be a dose-response relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes among youth, with poor outcomes such as sleep disturbance and depression being more likely among youth who report the highest frequency of social media use.(3,8) Young people’s experiences with social media and its impact on their mental health may also differ across race/ethnicity, sex, and sexual orientation.(9,10,11) For example, among youth of color (Black, East/Southeast Asian, Indigenous, Latinx), social media use has been associated with experiencing racial discrimination online and higher levels of depressive symptoms and anxiety.(10) Youth with LGBTQ+ identities report using social media platforms for identity development and communication more often than their heterosexual peers, and also reported more positive mental health outcomes.(11)

REFERENCES:
1.	Gottfried J. Americans' Social Media Use. Pew Research Center 2024;1:3.

2.	Anderson M, Faverio M, Gottfried J. Teens, Social Media and Technology 2023. Pew Research Center 2023;1:3-4. 

3.	Sampasa‐Kanyinga H, Hamilton HA, Chaput JP. Use of social media is associated with short sleep duration in a dose–response manner in students aged 11 to 20 years. Acta Paediatrica 2018;107(4):694-700.

4.	Keles B, McCrae N, Grealish A. A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. Int J Adolesc Youth. 2020;25(1):79-93. 

5.	Macrynikola N, Auad E, Menjivar J, Miranda R. Does social media use confer suicide risk? A systematic review of the evidence. Comp Hum Beh Rep. 2021;3:100094. 

6.	Abi-Jaoude E, Naylor KT, Pignatiello A. Smartphones, social media use and youth mental health. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2020;192(6):E136-E141.

7.	Coyne SM, Rogers AA, Zurcher JD, Stockdale L, Booth M. Does time spent using social media impact mental health?: An eight year longitudinal study. Computers in Human Behavior 2020;104:106160.

8.	Liu M, Kamper-DeMarco KE, Zhang J, Xiao J, Dong D, Xue P. Time spent on social media and risk of depression in adolescents: a dose–response meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022;19(9):5164.

9.	Twenge JM, Haidt J, Lozano J, Cummins KM. Specification curve analysis shows that social media use is linked to poor mental health, especially among girls. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2022;224:103512. 

10.	Tao X, Fisher CB. Exposure to social media racial discrimination and mental health among adolescents of color. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 2022;51(1):30-44.

11.	Berger MN, Taba M, Marino JL, Lim MSC, Skinner SR. Social media use and health and well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth: systematic review. JMed Internet Res. 2022;24(9):e38449. 

Oral Health

QUESTION(S):
80.	When was the last time you saw a dentist for a check-up, exam, teeth cleaning, or other dental work?
RATIONALE:
This question measures the prevalence of use of oral health care. YRBS is the only surveillance data source to monitor use of oral health care among high school students at the national, state, and local levels. Past-year dental visits among high school students from YRBS is a key indicator included in the National Oral Health Surveillance System.(1) Increasing use of the oral health system is also a Leading Health Indicator, a high-priority objective identified by Healthy People 2030.(2)

Despite improvements in oral health status in the United States, disparities remain in some population groups as classified by sex, income, age, and race/ethnicity.(3,4) Oral diseases and conditions can occur throughout the life span.(3,4) Nearly every American has experienced the most common oral disease, dental caries.(4) Among adolescents aged 12–19 years, more than half experienced dental caries in permanent teeth and 1 in 6 had untreated tooth decay in 2011–2016.(4) 

Oral health is related to general health. Studies suggest that oral diseases are associated with other diseases such as diabetes, heart disease and stroke, and adverse pregnancy outcomes.(3) General health risk factors, such as tobacco use and poor dietary behaviors, are also major risk factors for oral diseases.(3)  Regular access to oral health care is important for prevention and early detection and control of oral diseases. Dental settings also offer a unique venue to integrate oral health into coordinated prevention and control of chronic diseases.(3)  According to 2021 YRBS data, nationwide, 74% of students saw a dentist for a check-up, teeth cleaning, or other dental work during the 12 months before the survey.(5) Practicing healthy behaviors (e.g., not using tobacco, not using illegal substances, not drinking soda) is associated with receiving dental care in the past year among high school students.(6)  

REFERENCES:
1.	Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE). CSTE Position Statement: Revision to the National Oral Health Surveillance System (NOHSS) Indicators. 2015. Available at: https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.cste.org/resource/resmgr/2015PS/2015PSFinal/15-CD-01-ALL.pdf. 
2.	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2030. Leading Health Indicators. 2020. Available at: https://health.gov/healthypeople/objectives-and-data/leading-health-indicators.
3.	National Institutes of Health. Oral Health in America: Advances and Challenges. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, 2021. Available at: https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/research/oralhealthinamerica.
4.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Oral Health Surveillance Report: Trends in Dental Caries and Sealants, Tooth Retention, and Edentulism, United States, 1999–2004 to 2011–2016. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Dept of Health and Human Services; 2019. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/oral-health/php/data-research/2019-oral-health-surveillance-report/index.html. 
5.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

6.	Chertok IRA, Chertok N, Haile ZT, Chavan B. Association of youth characteristics and recent utilization of dental services in the United States. Frontiers in Pediatrics 2018;6:104.

Sleep

QUESTION(S):

83.	On an average school night, how many hours of sleep do you get?

RATIONALE:

This question measures the amount of sleep students get on an average school night. Sleep is necessary for physical and mental health and is particularly important during adolescence, a phase of rapid biologic growth and development.(1) In 2021, three quarters of high school students reported getting less than eight hours of sleep on an average school night.(2) Lack of adequate sleep among adolescents is associated with daytime sleepiness,(3,4) falling asleep during class,(5) general inattentiveness,(5) classroom behavioral problems,(5) drowsy driving,(1,3) depressed mood,(1,3,6) headaches,(6) and poor school performance.(7) Evidence tying insufficient sleep to poor health outcomes such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes is also growing.(8–12) 

Analysis of data from the national YRBS has shown that insufficient sleep is associated with higher odds of current use of cigarettes, marijuana, and alcohol; current sexual activity; seriously considering attempting suicide; feeling sad or hopeless; physical fighting; physical inactivity; obesity; engaging in injury-related risk behaviors; engaging in unhealthy weight-control behaviors; and perceived cognitive impairment.(13-17) 

In 2016, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommended that children aged 6–12 years should regularly sleep 9–12 hours per 24 hours and teens aged 13–18 years should sleep 8–10 hours per 24 hours.(18) Among high school students nationwide in 2021, 23% of students got 8 or more hours of sleep on an average school night.(19) The percentage of students getting 8 or more hours of sleep did not change significantly during 2007–2013 (31%–32%) and then decreased significantly during 2013–2021 (32%–23%).(19)

REFERENCES:
1.	Owens J, Adolescent Sleep Working Group, Committee on Adolescence. Insufficient sleep in adolescents and young adults: An update on causes and consequences. Pediatrics 2014;134(3):e921-32.

2.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Online: High School YRBS--United States 2021 Results. Accessed May 28, 2024. https://nccd.cdc.gov/Youthonline/App/Default.aspx

3.	Millman RP, Working Group on Sleepiness in Adolescents/Young Adults, AAP Committee on Adolescence. Excessive sleepiness in adolescents and young adults: Causes, consequences, and treatment strategies. Pediatrics 2005;115(6):1774–1786.

4.	Moore M, Meltzer LJ. The sleepy adolescent: Causes and consequences of sleepiness in teens. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews 2008;9(2):114–120.

5.	Beebe DW. Cognitive, behavioral, and functional consequences of inadequate sleep in children and adolescents. Pediatric Clinics of North America 2011;58(3):649–665.

6.	Smaldone A, Honig JC, Byrne MW. Sleepless in America: Inadequate sleep and relationships to health and well-being of our nation's children. Pediatrics 2007;119 (Suppl 1):S29–37.

7.	Wolfson AR, Carskadon MA. Sleep schedules and daytime functioning in adolescents. Child Development 1998;69(4):875–887.

8.	Taheri S. The link between short sleep duration and obesity: We should recommend more sleep to prevent obesity. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2006;91:881–884.

9.	Matthews KA, Pantesco EJ. Sleep characteristics and cardiovascular risk in children and adolescents: An enumerative review. Sleep Medicine 2016;18:36-49.

10.	Knutson KL, Ryden AM, Mander VA, Van Cauter E. Role of sleep duration and quality in the risk and severity of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166:1768–1764.

11.	Morgan T, Basalely A, Singer P, Castellanos L, Sethna CB. The association between sleep duration and cardiometabolic risk among children and adolescents in the United States (US): A NHANES study. Child Care Health Dev. 2024;50(3):e13273. doi: 10.1111/cch.13273.

12.	Rogers EM, Banks NF, Jenkins NDM. The effects of sleep disruption on metabolism, hunger, and satiety, and the influence of psychosocial stress and exercise: A narrative review. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2024;40(2):e3667. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.3667.

13.	McKnight-Eily LR, Eaton DK, Lowry R, Croft JB, Presley-Cantrell L, Perry GS. Relationships between hours of sleep and health-risk behaviors in US adolescent students. Preventive Medicine 2011;53(4–5):271–273.

14.	Lowry R, Eaton DK, Foti K, McKnight-Eily L, Perry G, Galuska DA. Association of sleep duration with obesity among US high school students. Journal of Obesity 2012;2012:476914.

15.	Wheaton AG, Olsen EO, Miller GF, Croft JB. Sleep duration and injury-related risk behaviors among high school students—United States, 2007–2013. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2016;65(13):337–341.

16.	Wheaton AG, Perry GS, Chapman DP, Croft JB. Self-reported sleep duration and weight-control strategies among U.S. high school students. Sleep 2013;36(8):1139–1145.

17.	Iverson GL, Iverson IA. Perceived cognitive impairment in high school students in the United States. Front Psychol. 2022;13:1019159. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1019159.

18.	Paruthi S, Brooks LJ, D’Ambrosio C, et al. Consensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine on the recommended amount of sleep for healthy children: Methodology and discussion. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine 2016;12:1549–61.

19.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991-2021 High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Available at: https://yrbs-explorer.services.cdc.gov/.

Homelessness

QUESTION:

84.	During the past 12 months, where did you usually sleep?

RATIONALE:

This question measures the percentage of students self-identifying as experiencing homelessness under the definition that applies to all public schools under the McKinney-Vento Act.(1) The Act requires every local education agency (LEA) in the United States to identify homeless youth in the LEA, and to collect and provide data to the state regarding the number of homeless students in the LEA. Schools use multiple strategies to identify students experiencing homelessness, but even the most robust strategies miss a large segment of the homeless population, because many parents and students strive to keep their housing situation private, fearing stigma, judgment, child welfare or law enforcement involvement, or other repercussions. 

When schools do not identify students experiencing homelessness, those students do not receive critical services available to them under the McKinney-Vento Act, such as school meals, school health and mental health services, access to transportation, and the ability to remain stable in one school. Including this question on the YRBS has helped states and LEAs generate a more accurate estimate of the extent of student homelessness, giving district administrators the impetus to evaluate and improve their methods for identifying homeless students. 

In addition to helping jurisdictions generate a more accurate estimate of the extent of student homelessness, the data resulting from this question has helped illuminate the health risks associated with homelessness. For example, compared to their housed peers, high school students experiencing homelessness are significantly more likely to attempt suicide, to be forced to have sexual intercourse, and to use alcohol and other drugs, and they are less likely to eat breakfast and get adequate sleep.(2-4) This information highlights the importance of implementing interventions to mitigate those risks. By revealing the supports needed for students experiencing homelessness, YRBS data can help schools increase high school graduation rates of these students, which can help prevent continued homelessness into their young adulthood.(5) 

The time period for the homelessness question was changed from 30 days to 12 months to better align with the McKinney-Vento Act definition of homelessness.(1) Recently, there have been changes in how homelessness has been referenced, using such terms as “housing instability,” “housing insecurity,” “unstable housing,” “unhoused,” and “houseless,” in efforts to reduce stigma.(6,7) 

REFERENCES:
1.	42 US Code §§11431-11435. 

2.	Institute for Children, Poverty, and Homelessness. No Longer Hidden: The Health and Well Being of Homeless High School Students. New York: Institute for Children, Poverty, and Homelessness; 2020. Available at: https://www.icphusa.org/no-longer-hidden. 

3.	Smith-Grant J, Kilmer G, Brener N, Robin L, Underwood JM. Risk behaviors and experiences among youth experiencing homelessness-Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 23 U.S. states and 11 local school districts, 2019. Journal of Community Health 2022;47(2):324–333. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-021-01056-2. 

4.	McKinnon II, Krause KH, Robin L, et al. Experiences of unstable housing among high school students — Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2021. MMWR Suppl 2023;72(Suppl-1):29–36. Available at: https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.su7201a4.

5.	Morton MH, Dworsky A, Matjasko JL, Curry SR, Schlueter D, Chávez R, Farrell AF. Prevalence and correlates of youth homelessness in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health 2018;62(1):14–21.

6.	Sullivan AA. What does it mean to be homeless? How definitions affect homelessness policy. Urban Affairs Review 2023, 59(3):728–758. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/10780874221095185

7.	Tsai J, Kelton K, Gluff J, Elbogen E. Terms that refer to homeless populations: national surveys of several stakeholder groups. Psychiatric Services 2023;74:415–418. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202100708

Food Insecurity

QUESTION(S):

85.	During the past 12 months, how often was your family worried that your food would run out before you got money to buy more? 

86.	During the past 12 months, how often did the food your family bought run out and they did not have money to buy more? 

RATIONALE:

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identifies food and nutrition security as a social determinant of health that influences chronic disease and health disparities. (1)  Chronic food insecurity among children can negatively impact development; however, even acute food insecurity is harmful, with implications for youth health behaviors as well as academic outcomes. Food insecurity is associated with lower school attendance and the inability to concentrate and stay on task—all of which are associated with academic achievement.(2,3) Additionally, the documented co-occurrence of food insecurity and risky sexual behaviors and substance use, and the association between food insecurity and poor mental health among adolescents,(4-8) point to the value of monitoring the prevalence of food insecurity alongside youth risk behaviors and protective factors.

It is important to ask adolescents about food insecurity instead of solely relying on estimates from household heads because adolescents and adult family members may answer differently,(9,10) and it is not clear which data are more reliable.(10) Moreover, adolescents are aware of household dynamics and have the awareness and independence to modify their behaviors in response to household scarcity.(11)

These two questions are modeled after the Hunger Vital Sign and adapted to have the same response format as other YRBS questions. The Hunger Vital Sign has been validated for self-report among adolescents and is promoted by the American Academy of Pediatrics for use in screening in pediatric and clinical settings. (6,12) In analyzing responses to these two items, students who affirmed either or both items (i.e., respond “sometimes”, “most of the time”, or “always”) are identified as being at risk for food insecurity. (6) 

REFERENCES:

1.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Equitably Addressing Social Determinants of Health and Chronic Diseases https://www.cdc.gov/health-equity-chronic-disease/social-determinants-of-health-and-chronic-disease.html.

2.	Jyoti DF, Frongillo EA, Jones SJ. Food insecurity affects school children's academic performance, weight gain, and social skills. The Journal of Nutrition. 2005;135(12):2831-2839. doi:10.1093/jn/135.12.2831.

3.	Tamiru D, Belachew T. The association of food insecurity and school absenteeism: systematic review. Agriculture & Food Security. 2017;6(1):1-4.
 
4.	Krupsky KL, Sliwa S, Seligman H, et al. Adolescent health risk behaviors, adverse experiences, and self-reported hunger: analysis of 10 states from the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveys. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 2022:1-17. 

5.	Shankar P, Chung R, Frank DA. Association of food insecurity with children's behavioral, emotional, and academic outcomes: a systematic review. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 2017;38(2):135-150. 

6.	Baer TE, Scherer EA, Fleegler EW, Hassan A. Food insecurity and the burden of health-related social problems in an urban youth population. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2015;57(6):601-607. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.08.013.

7.	Goesling B, Colman S, Trenholm C, Terzian M, Moore K. Programs to reduce teen pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and associated sexual risk behaviors: a systematic review. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2014;54(5):499-507. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.004.

8.	Dush JL. Adolescent food insecurity: A review of contextual and behavioral factors. Public Health Nursing. 2020;37(3):327-338. 

9.	Frongillo EA, Fram MS, Escobar-Alegría JL, Pérez-Garay M, Macauda MM, Billings DL. Concordance and discordance of the knowledge, understanding, and description of children's experience of food insecurity among Hispanic adults and children. Family & Community Health. 2019;42(4):237-244. 

10.	Nord M, Hanson K. Adult caregiver reports of adolescents’ food security do not agree well with adolescents’ own reports. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 2012;7(4):363-380. 

11.	Frongillo EA, Fram MS, Ghattas H, et al. Development, validity, and cross-context equivalence of the Child Food Insecurity Experiences Scale for assessing food insecurity of school-age children and adolescents. The Journal of Nutrition. 2022;152(9):2135-2144. doi:10.1093/jn/nxac127.

12.	Council on Community Pediatrics; Committee on Nutrition; Gitterman BA, et al. Promoting food security for all children. Pediatrics. 2015;136(5):e1431-e1438. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-3301.